|
|
|
|
|
United States of America
|
|
Number of nuclear units connected to the grid |
Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh) |
Nuclear percentage
of total electricity supply |
|
| United States |
|
806.0
|
19.4 |
| OECD America |
126 |
90.0 |
18.1 |
|
OECD TOTAL |
346 (out of 439 worldwide) |
2172.5 |
21.6 |
The nuclear power industry grew to its present size following construction programmes initiated during the 1960s and 1970s when nuclear power was anticipated to be a low cost source of electricity. Increases in nuclear generating capacity during 1969-1996 made nuclear power the second largest source of electricity generation in the United States (US), following coal. Better utilisation of generating capacity has permitted nuclear power to maintain this relative position despite the end of new plant construction during the 1990s and extended shutdowns of several reactors for maintenance and refitting during the 1990s. Several nuclear reactors were permanently closed during the 1990s though many were small or prototype units. The last units closed were during 1998.
Annual nuclear electricity generation has more than tripled since 1980 to 780 billion kW h in 2002. Nuclear power now accounts for over twenty percent of total electricity generation in the US. The positive nuclear power record has been influenced by growth in reactor productivity as measured by an increase in capacity factors from 56% in 1980, to 66% in 1990, and over 90% in 2002. Many individual units have achieved 95% or higher capacity factors. There were 104 licensed nuclear reactors in the US at the end of 2001. One of the licensed reactors, Browns Ferry 1, has not "operated" since 1985 though the plant's owner/operator, the Tennessee Valley Authority, intends to restart the reactor by 2007. Reactors are located at 65 sites (plants) throughout the United States with most located in the eastern half of the country. Reactors had a total net summer capacity of 98.7 MW(e) by the end of 2002. Table 1 shows the current status of nuclear power plants.
Over forty years of operational experience and steadily improving licensee performance have changed the way that the US regulates nuclear power. This has taken the form of a more risk-informed and performance-based approach. To encourage a sustained high level of safety performance of US nuclear plants, important oversight processes have incorporated risk insights from quantitative risk analysis. Efforts also continue to revise regulations to focus requirements on plant programmes and activities that are most risk significant.
The increasing need for additional power in the US along with improved economic and safety performance have led many licensees to renew their operating licenses for an additional 20 years beyond the their initial 40-year limits. Twenty-three reactors have extended their operating licenses since 2000. Applications to extend the licenses of at least 35 additional reactors are anticipated through 2006. Expectations are that essentially all operating reactors in the US will eventually apply for operating license renewals. The NRC publishes the updated status of such applications on its website. A review of this list indicates that some of the oldest units in the US have yet to apply.
Licensees have also implemented power uprates throughout their history as a means to increase the output of their reactors. This process has grown considerably in recent years. Power uprates are classified by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in three groups:
measurement uncertainty recapture uprates of less than two percent implement enhanced techniques for calculating reactor power;
stretch power uprates are typically less than seven percent and do not usually involve major plant modification; and
extended power uprates, larger than stretch power uprates, require significant modification to major balance-of-plant equipment.
Extended uprates have been approved for increases as much as twenty percent, though these might take place over several stages of plant modification. As of April 2003, the NRC has approved 92 power uprates adding about 4 022 MW(e) to the generating capacity in the US. This is equivalent to more than four average sized nuclear power plants. The NRC no longer publishes data on anticipated uprates but a survey by the Energy Information Administration in indicates that 1 743 MWe will be added through uprates between 2003 and 2007 or the equivalent of slightly less than two average-sized US reactors.
The administration's 2001 National Energy Policy identified nuclear energy as a key part of the nation's targeted energy mix. During 2002, the US Department of Energy initiated its Nuclear Power 2010 (NP2010) programme. Initially the programme set a 2010 target for the completion of two new nuclear power plants under its NP2010 programme though this schedule is now less precise. Any construction would exclude presently certified reactor designs but could involve reactors that are presently in the design certification process. Three utilities, Dominion Resources, Exelon, and Entergy have applied during 2004 early site permits (ESP) which will allow them to initiate nuclear power site clearances prior to commitments to build. Several other firms have indicated that they might be interested in the ESP process. The US Department of Energy also hopes to make arrangements for the joint funding of combined operating licenses (COL) at two sites by the end of 2004. A COL is the last federal licensing requirement before construction is permitted to begin, though the COL is valid for at least ten years prior to actual construction. Plant vendors assert that construction costs of new designs could match the costs of building new coal-fired units. These cost claims for as yet unbuilt designs have not been verified by actual experience, so the difference in view is unresolved.
The future of nuclear power will depend on several factors including successfully dealing with nuclear waste issues, the reduction of nuclear capital costs, and favourable government policies. Progress has been made on each including the 2002 federal approval of a long-term high-level waste disposal site at Yucca Mountain and vendor and utility efforts to reduce the costs of building new nuclear power plants. The NRC has also streamlined its licensing process for future nuclear power reactors, an area in which it has lacked recent experience. The goal of each of these changes is to shorten construction lead-times and to improve the economics of new reactor technology. The US government goal is that these and similar actions might restart the construction of nuclear power plants by the end of the decade.
The Energy Information Administration of the US Department of Energy (DOE) maintains material related to the status of US nuclear power plants including links to additional information
Table 1. Status of nuclear power plants (31 December 2001)
Table 1. Continued. Status of nuclear power plants (31 December 2001)
Table 1. Continued. Status of nuclear power plants (31 December 2001)
Table 1. Continued. Status of nuclear power plants (31 December 2001)
Table 1b. Table of Operators
|
Code |
Operator Name |
|
AMERUE |
AMEREN (UNION ELECTRIC) |
|
AMERGEN |
AMERGEN ENERGY CO. |
|
ANPP |
ARIZONA NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT |
|
CONED |
CONSOLIDATED EDISON CO. |
|
CONSTELL |
CONSTELLATION NUCLEAR GROUP |
|
CPC |
CONSUMERS POWER CO. |
|
CVPA |
CAROLINAS-VIRGINIA NUCLEAR POWER ASSOC. |
|
CYAPC |
CONNECTICUT YANKEE ATOMIC POWER CO. |
|
DETED |
DETROIT EDISON CO. |
|
DOE/PRWR |
DOE & PUERTO RICO WATER RESOURCES |
|
DOMINION |
DOMINION GENERATION |
|
DPC |
DAIRYLAND POWER COOPERATIVE |
|
DUKE |
DUKE POWER CO. |
|
ENERGYNW |
ENERGY NORHWEST |
|
ENTERGY |
ENTERGY NUCLEAR |
|
EXELON |
EXELON GENERATION LLC |
|
FIRSTENERGY |
FIRST ENERGY NUCLEAR OPERATING CO. |
|
FPL |
FLORIDA POWER & LIGHT CO. |
|
GPU |
GENERAL PUBLIC UTILITIES |
|
IMPCO |
INDIANA MICHIGAN POWER CO. |
|
MYAPC |
MAINE YANKEE ATOMIC POWER CO. |
|
NAES |
NORTH ATLANTIC ENERGY SERVICE CORP. |
|
NPPD |
NEBRASKA PUBLIC POWER DISTRICT |
|
NUCMAN |
NUCLEAR MANAGEMENT CO. |
|
NSP |
NORTHERN STATES POWER |
|
OPPD |
OMAHA PUBLIC POWER DISTRICT |
|
PGEC |
PACIFIC GAS & ELECTRIC CO. |
|
PORTGE |
PORTLAND GENERAL ELECTRIC CO. |
|
PP&L |
PENNSYLVANIA POWER & LIGHT CO. |
|
PROGRESS |
PROGRESS ENERGY |
|
PSCC |
PUBLIC SERVICE CO. OF COLORADO |
|
PSEG |
PUBLIC SERVICE ELECTRIC & GAS CO. |
|
RCPA |
RURAL COOPERATIVE POWER ASSOC. |
|
RGE |
ROCHESTER GAS & ELECTRIC CORP. |
|
SCE |
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON |
|
SCEG |
SOUTH CAROLINA ELECTRIC & GAS CO. |
|
SMUD |
SACRAMENTO MUNICIPAL UTILITY DISTRICT |
SOUTH |
SOUTHERN NUCLEAR OPERATING CO. |
|
STP |
STP NUCLEAR OPERATING CO. |
|
TXU |
TXU ELECTRIC GENERATION CO. |
|
TVA |
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY |
|
VYNPC |
VERMONT YANKEE NUCLEAR POWER CORPORATION |
|
WOLF |
WOLF CREEK NUCLEAR OPERATION CORP. |
|
YAEC |
YANKEE ATOMIC ELECTRIC CO. |
Table 1c. Table of Nuclear Steam Supply System Suppliers
Code |
NSSS Supplier Name |
|
AC |
ALLIS CHALMERS |
|
B&W |
BABCOCK & WILCOX CO. |
|
CE |
COMBUSTION ENGINEERING CO. |
|
GA |
GENERAL ATOMIC CORP. |
|
GE |
GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY (US) |
|
GNEPRWRA |
GENERAL NUCLEAR ENGINEERING & PUERTO RICO WATER RESOURCES |
|
UEC |
UNITED ENGINEERS AND CONTRACTORS |
|
WEST |
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION |
Four companies suppling nuclear steam supply systems currently operate in the United States. Westinghouse Corporation built the majority of pressurised water reactors (PWR) though Combustion Engineering (CE) and Babcock & Wilcox (B&W) also built PWRs. Babcock & Wilcox supplied nuclear steam generators, replacement nuclear steam generators, and nuclear heat exchangers. Westinghouse and CE are now part of Westinghouse BNFL while AREVA NP now owns elements of B&W's nuclear technology. General Electric designed all presently operating boiling water reactors (BWR) in the US. The American Nuclear Society's 2003 Buyer's Guidefor the nuclear industry lists eleven NSSS suppliers for the United States. The list includes several suppliers of designs not certified in the United States and excludes several suppliers that provide certified reactor designs or that have reactor designs in pre-certification with the NRC.
There are three reactor designs approved by the NRC for construction in the United States: the Westinghouse & BNFL System 80+ and AP600; and the General Electric Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR). Toshiba and Hitachi are also authorised to sell ABWR designs in the United States. There are currently eight reactor designs that are either undergoing certification or pre-certification procedures with the NRC. It is anticipated that other designs will join the process. The Westinghouse BNFL AP1000 design is currently undergoing final certification. Designs currently undergoing pre-certification include: the General Electric ESBWR, the AREVA NP SWR-1000, the General Atomics GT-MHR, the Atomic Energy of Canada ACR-700 advanced Candu design, the Eskom PBMR, the Westinghouse BNFL IRIS and the AREVA NP EPR.
A large number of companies in the US provide equipment and services to the nuclear power industry. These services cover the entire nuclear fuel cycle spectrum, from suppliers of main components to providers of routine equipment and services found in most power plants. Reprocessing is not available in the US. Steam generators for PWRs and some high quality steel castings are no longer made in the United States for nuclear reactors. Domestic suppliers in the US must often compete with imports. This has resulted in the slow growth of nuclear plant construction and the internationalisation of the nuclear energy business. The American Nuclear Society's annual Buyer's Guide, published in their journal Nuclear News provides a partial list of equipment and service providers to the nuclear industry.
To help assure high quality products, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) certifies nuclear equipment suppliers. To obtain a nuclear certificate of authorisation, a company must comply with quality assurance requirements set forth by the ASME. This programme is open to foreign companies. Presently over 200 foreign and US companies hold ASME nuclear certificates of authorisation.
The 104 operable nuclear reactors are mostly privately owned and operated though nine are operated by government-owned entities. As a result of several mergers, twenty-six companies and agencies now have commercial reactor operating licenses from the NRC.
Several private companies provide training for nuclear plant operators. Training facilities also exist at each operating reactor. The Institute of Nuclear Power Plant Operations (INPO) sponsors a widely-used training programme. INPO was founded in 1979 as the industry's response to the Three Mile Island accident. It promotes the highest levels of safety and reliability in commercial nuclear power plants . Among its many activities, INPO manages a nuclear utility training accreditation programme.
All activities of the commercial nuclear fuel cycle are conducted in the United States, with the exception of spent fuel reprocessing which US fuel cycle policy prohibits. A re-examination of reprocessing was included in the National Energy Policy of 2001 though no commitment has been made. Each fuel cycle stage is subject to competition and supply from international sources which in many cases dominate the stage. At present the US nuclear fuel supply is highly dependent on imports for mined uranium concentrates (80%), uranium conversion (48%), and enrichment (86%). Virtually all fuel fabrication requirements are met by domestic sources. The Energy Information Administration publishes data on the nuclear fuel cycle.
At year-end 2004, one mill (360 TPD) was operating, two (4 540 TPD) were maintained in standby, and one mill (680 TPD) was in reclamation. No capacity was reported for the one shutdown mill. During 2004 there were eight in-situ leach production facilities with a capacity of 3 380 tU. Of these, three (1 460 tU) were operating, two (770 tU) were closed indefinitely or on standby, one (380 tU) was in development and two new facilities (770 tU) were undergoing permitting and licensing. Three non-conventional plants reported no capacities: two were undergoing restoration and one was depleted. Canada is the major source of concentrate imports though supplies have also come from Australia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Namibia, and a few additional locations.
The United States has one uranium conversion plant located at Metropolis, Illinois. Other sources of conversion service imports include Canada and Russia.
Additional information on US uranium activities is published in the Energy Information Administration's Uranium Industry Annual.
The United States Enrichment Corporation (USEC) operates an enrichment facility (leased from the DOE) at Paducah, Kentucky. A second facility at Portsmouth, Ohio has stopped operations. The facilities used gaseous diffusion technology which is seen as dated and expensive. Both USEC and a second group, Louisiana Enrichment Services (LES), have indicated intentions to build more modern facilities, gas centrifuge enrichment facilities. USEC is proposing to use gas centrifuge technology developed by DOE. LES is proposing to use Urenco Technology currently in use in Europe. The LES facility will be located in New Mexico while the USEC will use its Portsmouth, Ohio site for the facility.
Enrichment services have also been imported from facilities in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Russia.
Three companies (AREVA NP, Global Nuclear Fuels, and Westinghouse) fabricate uranium fuel in the United States for light-water reactor fuel. Plants are located in: Columbia, South Carolina; Wilmington, North Carolina; Richland, Washington; and Lynchburg, Virginia. Some production is exported to Japan.
Commercial nuclear power reactors currently store most of their spent fuel on-site at the nuclear plant, although a small amount has been shipped to off-site facilities. The spent fuel inventory in the United States was 42.7 thousand metric tons of Uranium as of December 2000. In 2000 EIA projected that by 2010, the reactors in the United States will be discharging ~2 000 metric tons annually and the spent nuclear fuel (SNF) discharged over the decade would amount to approximately 23 thousand metric tons of uranium. By 2035, when the last of 118 commercial power reactors will have completed its initial forty year license period, SNF containing a total of about 83 800 MTHM will have been generated during their initial planned period. (Most commercial reactors will operate beyond forty years). This projected inventory includes SNF resulting from burning approximately 33 MTHM of surplus weapons-usable plutonium in the form of mixed-oxide fuel in commercial nuclear reactors.
During 2002 Congress and the President approved plans to dispose of high-level waste (HLW) in a geologic repository at Yucca Mountain in Nevada. The Department of Energy intends to submit a license application for construction authorisation for this repository to the NRC in late 2004. While objections and court proceedings from the state of Nevada and others continue, there is presently no legal barrier to the completion of this project. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA) of 1982 provides that the NRC may approve the emplacement in the first repository of a quantity of spent fuel containing no more than 70 000 MTHM or a quantity of solidified HLW resulting from the reprocessing of such a quantity of spent fuel.
The Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM) manages nuclear wastes for the US Department of Energy. OCRWM programmes include:
Programme management activities are administered from Washington, DC. Responsibilities include oversight of quality assurance, programme planning and administration, programme management and integration, external interactions, human resources, and the OCRWM budget;
The Yucca Mountain site is located in Nye County, Nevada, approximately 100 miles northwest of Las Vegas. For two decades the OCRWM has conducted scientific and engineering investigations at Yucca Mountain to determine its suitability as a nuclear waste repository;
For additional information on the US' radioactive waste management programme please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries.
Both private industry and the Federal government conduct research and development for the nuclear industry. Private companies are actively investigating reactor technology, enrichment technology, and nuclear fuel design. One of the main institutions for private research funding is through the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). EPRI, through membership fees, conducts research and development in many nuclear-related areas as well as other areas of the electric power industry.
The Federal government supports research and development through specific budget allocations for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and through national laboratories operated by private agencies licensed by the US Department of Energy. The Department of Energy includes 26 laboratories and institutes, many of which are involved with the nuclear fuel cycle.
In response to a 1997 Presidential Advisory Committee recommendation, the Department of Energy created the Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (NERI) in 1998 to overcome the principal technical and scientific obstacles to the future use of nuclear energy in the United States. The NERI also helps preserve the nuclear science and engineering infrastructure within US universities, laboratories, and industry to advance the state of nuclear energy technology and to maintain a competitive position worldwide. Specific obstacles this research and development addresses, include:
proliferation-resistant reactors or fuel cycles;
new reactor designs with higher efficiency, reduced cost, and enhanced safety;
smaller reactors for applications where larger reactors may not be advantageous;
new techniques for on-site and surface storage and for permanent disposal of nuclear waste;
advanced nuclear fuel; and
fundamental nuclear science and technology.
During 2003 the director of the US Department of Energy's Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology was elected Chairman of the Steering Committee of the Nuclear Energy Agency. The United States Secretary of Energy also signed an agreement with the Republic of Korea's Minister of Science and Technology to conduct joint research on advanced proliferation resistant fuel cycle technologies. The United States also signed International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (I-NERI) agreements with Canada and Brazil to foster collaborative research and development on advanced nuclear technologies.
The preceding activities representing a portion of the Department of Energy's Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology is also involved in several international nuclear programmes. I-NERI agreements, for example, were initiated by the Department of Energy to foster international collaborative research and development on next-generation nuclear reactor and fuel cycle technology. The United States intends to sign such agreements with all members of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) which is developing advanced, next-generation reactor designs that offer advantages in terms of economics, safety, proliferation-resistance, and waste minimisation. GIF has targeted the implementation of five selected advanced designs by 2030 with some designs targeted for earlier implementation.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's international program activities are wide-ranging. They encompass nuclear policy formulation, international safety co-operation and assistance, international technical information exchange, and co-operative safety research. These activities support NRC's domestic mission, as well as broader US domestic and international interests. Maintaining a programme of international co-operation enhances the safe, secure, and environmentally acceptable civilian uses of nuclear materials in both the US and throughout the world. As a regulator of the world's largest civilian nuclear programme, the NRC's extensive experience contributes to international programmes in areas such as nuclear reactor safety, nuclear safety research, radiation protection, nuclear materials safety and safeguards, waste management, and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission helped found the International Nuclear Regulatory Association (INRA) in 1977, an organisation of senior regulators from nations operating a substantial majority of the world's commercial nuclear reactors. The NRC also benefits significantly from the regulatory experience and safety research programs of other countries.
The United States has also actively participated in the policy and implementation aspects of nuclear initiatives under the Group of Seven (G-7) industrialised nations, the Group of 24 Nuclear Safety Coordination (G-24NUSAC) mechanism, and the Nuclear Safety Account administered by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD/NSA). These institutions have focused on co-ordinating multi-layered international efforts to enhance nuclear safety in countries with Soviet-designed nuclear power reactors. The NRC works with other nations with major nuclear power programmes to further nuclear safety research. These nations include France, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom.
The NRC has concluded technical information exchange and general safety co-operation arrangements with the regulatory authorities of 34 countries plus Taiwan. These arrangements serve as communications channels for the prompt and reciprocal notification of safety problems that could affect both US and foreign plants. They also provide the framework for bilateral co-operation in nuclear safety, safeguards, waste management, and environmental protection as well as for NRC's assistance activities to help other countries improve both their regulatory skills and their health and safety practices.
NRC currently participates in co-operative research with other countries, directly through bilateral agreements as well as multilateral agreements with NEA member States and the European Union (EU). These programmes examine key technical safety issues in regulating the safety of existing and proposed US commercial nuclear facilities and in the use of nuclear materials. At present, NRC manages and co-ordinates approximately 90 bilateral and multilateral energy arrangements with 25 countries, which include, but are not limited to, research activities in the areas of: thermal-hydraulic code application and maintenance, severe accident research programme, probabilistic risk assessment programme, steam generator tube integrity programme (SGTI), instrumentation and controls, human factors, nuclear fuels research, advanced reactor design, fire modelling research, and ageing research of safety components and wire systems. The NRC also includes support for the Agency for International Development (USAID) related work for Russia, assisting the Russian regulatory organisation (GAN) in developing analytical risk assessment methods and evaluation techniques for light water reactors.
The US continues nuclear safety co-operation with the former Soviet Union and countries of central and Eastern Europe. These activities strengthen their regulatory organisations, train foreign inspectors, and work toward operational safety and risk reduction. States receiving assistance include Armenia and Kazakhstan.
The United States played a leading role in resolving implementation issues for the International Convention on Nuclear Safety, which entered into force in October 1996. The United States also participated in the successful negotiation of the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, as well as the Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
The United States shares the global trend of declining enrollments in nuclear engineering schools. The work force in the nuclear power industry is ageing and it is feared that many professional skills might vanish as the staff at nuclear power and research facilities retire. Without any active programme of construction in the nuclear power industry, it is not clear what level of trained personnel will be required by the industry in the future. The long-term trends toward a decline in the number of university programmes offering nuclear engineering degrees ended in 2002 when two schools added new programmes.
The US Department of Energy's Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology has an active programme to encourage the development of academic programmes related to nuclear power. The American Nuclear Society, a professional organisation, also promotes the improvement of academic work related to nuclear power at higher education institutions.
For additional information on national laws and regulations concerning nuclear power please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Analytical Study of Nuclear Legislation in OECD countries.
For additional information on the safety authority and the licensing process please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Analytical Study of Nuclear Legislation in OECD countries, USA INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK CHAPTER.
Federal government policies concerning commercial nuclear power are carried out through the US Department of Energy. Active Department of Energy programmes involve new reactor technologies, reinitiating power plant construction, and radioactive waste management.
The Department of Energy's Advanced Light Water Reactor Programme (ALWR) in the 1980s sought to create standardised light water reactors available at the earliest possible time. This programme helped secure NRC certification for General Electric's Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR) and the Combustion Engineering's System 80+ Advanced Pressurised Water Reactor. The NRC gave final design approval to the ABWR and the System 80+ during the summer of 1994. Programs initiated during the mid-1990s co-funded smaller (600 MWe) light-water reactors incorporating passive safety features. Westinghouse's AP-600 received design approval in 1998. The General Electric Simplified Boiling Water Reactor has not been certified, but is being used as a basis for ongoing design research.
The Department of Energy has recently initiated a Generation IV (Gen4) programme to develop innovative and new commercial reactor designs by 2040. This programme has both domestic (US) and international components. Based on the Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems issued in 2003, the Generation IV International Forum countries are jointly preparing collaborative research and development programmes to develop and demonstrate next-generation reactor concepts.
The Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee (NERAC) was established on 1 October 1998, to provide the Department of Energy and Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology (NE) with independent advice on science and technical issues related to the Department of Energy's nuclear energy programme. NERAC reviews elements of the NE programme and provides advice and recommendations on long-range plans, priorities, and strategies. NERAC also provides advice on national policy and scientific aspects on nuclear energy research as requested by the Secretary of Energy or the Director of NE.
The Department of Energy created its Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (NERI) to address the technical and scientific issues affecting the future use of nuclear energy in the United States. NERI is expected to help preserve the nuclear science and engineering infrastructure within US universities, laboratories, and industry; to advance the state of nuclear energy technology, and to maintain a competitive position worldwide. The Department of Energy funds creative research ideas at science and technology institutions and companies to develop solutions to important nuclear issues and find new potentials for nuclear energy.
In response to advice of the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST), The Department of Energy established the International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (I-NERI) to serve as a key mechanism to establish bilateral agreements for international collaboration in developing Generation IV energy systems.
The Department of Energy's Nuclear Energy Plant Optimiser (NEPO) Programme, initiated during fiscal year (FY) 2000, is a programme focused on performance of operating nuclear power plants. The primary areas of focus for the NEPO programme include plant ageing and optimisation of electrical production. NEPO is also a public-private research and development partnership with equal or greater matching funds coming from industry.
The Nuclear Engineering Education Research (NEER) programme sponsors nuclear research at colleges and universities with nuclear engineering programmes, options, or research reactors. The programme seeks to support basic research in nuclear engineering, assist in nuclear engineering student development, and strengthen the academic community's nuclear engineering infrastructure.
The Department of Energy's Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM) is responsible for disposal of the Nation's spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste. The Department of Energy plans to store the radioactive waste in a deep geologic repository at Yucca Mountain Nevada. The proposal was approved by federal agencies, including the Congress during 2002 though challenges by local government agencies remain active. The project's long-term objective is to initiate repository operations during 2010.
The restructuring of the electric power industry to provide customers a choice among competitive energy providers varies in each of the fifty states and the District of Columbia. The Energy Information Administration publishes a chart of the present status of electricity restructuring in each state. As of February 2003, programmes to provide retail access to competitive energy providers were active in seventeen states and the District of Columbia. Restructuring programmes were delayed in five states and suspended in California. Twenty-six states do not have retail choice programmes. However, virtually all states had some elements of restructuring within their wholesale electricity supply systems and no state has fully abandoned a government role in electricity supply. Moreover, the Federal Electricity Regulatory Commission (FERC) requires a degree of open access to electricity transmission facilities, though in practice open transmission access is limited by available transmission facilities.
One early concern regarding nuclear-based power generation was the existence of "stranded costs" within the industry. Stranded costs are basically cost structures, including debts, which were accepted and passed along to consumers under a regulated system but which are not involved in pricing under a restructured system. Among those restructuring states, which have nuclear power generating facilities, most have built allowances for nuclear power stranded costs into their reorganisation programmes. Moreover, most nuclear power generators have proven to have lower operating costs than competing generation facilities. (Hydroelectricity is the notable exception to this generalisation). This has resulted in high rates of capacity utilisation (averaging near 90% among operable units) at existing nuclear facilities and generally profitable operation under restructuring.
While operating nuclear power plants have managed to meet the requirements of any restructuring, the question of whether restructured markets favour or discourage nuclear power investments has yet to be resolved. Two reasons for this situation stand out. First, existing licensed designs for nuclear power have been "too expensive" to yet attract serious investor attention in the United States. Also, historic construction periods, perhaps seven years or more, have been too long to attract investor attention in a competitive environment where short-term profits are a major concern and prolonged dilutions of earnings diminish corporate stock values. In addition to these factors, new investments in the US electricity market as a whole have nearly ceased during 2001-2002 in the face of a slow economy.
Vendors of nuclear power plants now claim that designs in the earlier stage of licensing, plus actions related to existing licensed designs, will reduce both the capital costs and construction times for new nuclear reactors. Added to this is the Department of Energy's Nuclear Power 2010 (NP2010) program that proposes an increased degree of federal government support for nuclear generation over the coming decade. Included in the NP2010 program are efforts to improve the investment conditions that affect private nuclear power investments. The next few years will determine if these efforts are effective.
The United States government's involvement in nuclear research and development includes both programmes supported by the Department of Energy's Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology and in activities conducted at an array of national laboratories. Financial support is also provided to research at several private and state government funded universities scattered throughout the nation. Research covers a variety of topics ranging from commercial nuclear power, to the fuel cycle, weapons technology and to basic nuclear physics.
The relationship between nuclear energy and climate change is an active area of government and private sector interest in the United States. The US Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration publishes many documents on climate change issues. The Environmental Protection Agency co-ordinates most US activities related to global warming. There are many non-governmental agencies that also discuss the interactions of nuclear energy and climate change. The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) which represents US nuclear energy industry interests discusses industry views on nuclear power and climate change. The lead agency in US hydrogen policy is the Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is the primary agency involved in nuclear safety regulation. This regulatory responsibility includes safety evaluations and rules related to waste management. The actual management of nuclear waste is the responsibility of the US Department of Energy which handles waste through its Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM). The primary intended ultimate destination for long-lived, high-level waste (HLW) civilian radioactive waste will be the Yucca Mountain Project in Nevada. A smaller HLW facility already exists in Carlsbad, New Mexico. The selection of the Yucca Mountain Project site remains a controversial issue with state and local authorities in Nevada taking a lead role in judicial and legislative challenges to the site's selection.
The Department of Energy's Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology's Nuclear Power 2010 (NP2010) intends to complete the construction of the next commercial nuclear power plant in the United States within the next ten years or less. In the NP2010 process the Department of Energy intends to provide financial assistance in key licensing/regulatory areas including combined operating licenses and reactor design certification. Government sites might also be made available for nuclear power investments. The Department of Energy also is a key player in the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) which is intended to contribute to the commercial development of next generation reactor designs by 2030. Congressional websites (Senate and House of Representatives) can often be accessed for transcripts and broadcasts of committee hearings on nuclear power.
The decline of the domestic uranium mining industry in the United States has been a matter of concern to some authorities. At present most uranium used in the United States is imported and services processing and enriching uranium fuels are also imported. At present the United States does not reprocess spent fuels though the topic is now subject to review under the present administration's energy policy guidelines. Other items and goals subject to investigation include research into spent fuel waste transmutation and the advancement of advanced commercial reactor designs.
Appendix 1 - International, Multilateral and Bilateral AgreementsNuclear facts and figures for OECD countries
Number of nuclear units connected to the grid; Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh); Nuclear percentage of total electricity supply.
IEA Energy Statistics: USA
Data available in the following areas: Coal, oil and gas use; Electricity production, supply and consumption; Heat production, supply and consumption; Graphs of sectorial final consumption by source in 1973 and 2001.
The Decommissioning and Dismantling of Nuclear Facilities in OECD/NEA Member Countries: USA
This compilation of national fact sheets is intended to serve as an authoritative source of reference information on individual NEA member countries. In this context, the term "nuclear facility" includes all facilities associated with the production of nuclear power, from mining of uranium, through fabrication of nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant operation, fuel reprocessing and waste management, including related R&D facilities, and research and demonstration reactors.
Nuclear Legislation in OECD Countries: USA
Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear Activities
Each country profile in this valuable reference work provides a detailed review of a full range of nuclear law topics. These include: the general regulatory regime, including mining; radioactive substances and equipment; nuclear installations; trade in nuclear materials; radiation protection; radioactive waste management; non-proliferation and physical protection; transport; and nuclear third party liability.
Nuclear Energy Data
Nuclear Energy Data is the NEA’s annual compilation of essential statistics on electricity generation and nuclear power in OECD countries. The reader will have quick and easy reference to the status of and projected trends in total electricity generating capacity, nuclear generating capacity, and actual electricity production, as well as to supply and demand for nuclear fuel cycle services.
This is an edited extract from the IAEA Country Nuclear Power Profile of the USA, compiled in 2003. The complete entry is available from the IAEA.
Last updated: 20 June 2007
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