|
|
|
|
|
Switzerland
|
|
Number of nuclear units connected to the grid |
Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh) |
Nuclear percentage
of total electricity supply |
|
| Switzerland |
5 |
26.0 |
40.6 |
| OECD Europe |
150 |
929.3 |
27.3 |
|
OECD TOTAL |
346 (out of 437 worldwide) |
2278.1 |
23.1 |
Source: Nuclear Energy Data 2007. The complete table for all OECD member countries is also available.
The institutional structure of the Swiss regulatory nuclear sector and the relationship among different organisations are shown in Table 1. The Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication (UVEK) reports to the Federal Council. The Federal Office of Energy (BFE), a regulatory body, reports to the Federal Department of Environment, Transports, Energy and Communication. The Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (HSK) is part of the Federal Office of Energy. The Commission for the Safety of Atomic Installation reports to the Federal Council via the Federal Office of Energy. (An updated organisational chart not available at the present time)
The five nuclear units in operation in Switzerland contribute approximately 39% of the electricity generation in the country. In 2004, Beznau-II, a 365 MW(e) pressurised water reactor (PWR) unit in operation since 1971, was issued a unlimited license for operation, subject to the establishment of safety regimes and inspection and control. Similarly, the 355 MW(e) boiling water reactor (BWR) unit in operation at Mühleberg, was in 2002 issued a ten year operation license. The three other units in operation have unlimited operating licenses. Table 1 shows the status of the Swiss nuclear power plants.
Table 1. Status and Trends of Nuclear Power Plants
| Station | Type | Capacity | Operator | Status | Reactor
Supplier |
Construction Date | Criticality Date |
Grid Date | Commercial Date | Shutdown
Date |
| BEZNAU-1 | PWR | 365 | NOK | Operational | WEST | 01-Sep-65 | 30-Jun-69 | 17-Jul-69 | 01-Sep-69 | |
| BEZNAU-2 | PWR | 365 | NOK | Operational | WEST | 01-Jan-68 | 16-Oct-71 | 23-Oct-71 | 01-Dec-71 | |
| GOESGEN | PWR | 970 | KKG | Operational | KWU | 01-Dec-73 | 20-Jan-79 | 02-Feb-79 | 01-Nov-79 | |
| LEIBSTADT | BWR | 1165 | KKL | Operational | GETSCO | 01-Jan-74 | 09-Mar-84 | 24-May-84 | 15-Dec-84 | |
| MUEHLEBERG | BWR | 355 | BKW | Operational | GETSCO | 01-Mar-67 | 08-Mar-71 | 01-Jul-71 | 06-Nov-72 |
Source: IAEA Country Information.
The owners and operators of nuclear power plants are responsible for the planning and decision making relative to the fuel cycle. They conclude contracts within the framework of the law and international agreements. The activities of the government and its administration are of a subsidiary nature, for example, accounting and controlling nuclear materials as required by the Non Proliferation Treaty, import/export licenses in accordance with bilateral agreements and the guidelines of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), as well as negotiating bilateral agreements.
Natural uranium is currently procured from three sources: partnership or joint-venture production, long term contracts and spot market contracts.
Enrichment is provided by the US, Russia and the European Community (France, Germany, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands). The fuel elements are manufactured in the US, the European Community (Belgium, Germany, United Kingdom, Spain, and Sweden) and Russia.
Reprocessing contracts with COGEMA and BNFL cover about one third of total nuclear fuel to be irradiated. MOX elements with recycled plutonium have been used in the Beznau I power plant since 1978. Today, the use of MOX is a standard operational procedure in both Beznau plants. The Gösgen nuclear power plant has used MOX elements since June 1997.
According to Swiss law, radioactive waste generated in Switzerland has to be disposed off domestically, although exceptions may be granted by the government. All radioactive waste has to undergo geological disposal. The generators of radioactive waste, namely, the operators of the nuclear power plants and the Federal State for the radioactive waste from medicine, industry and research, are responsible for the management including disposal. No disposal facility is yet in operation, thus all radioactive waste is kept in storage facilities. Each nuclear power plant has sufficient storage capacity for its own waste. Radioactive waste from medicine, industry and research is stored at the Federal Storage Facility operated by the research institute PSI.
Centralised interim storage of radioactive wastes
The utility-owned organisation ZWILAG is responsible for storing spent fuel, high-level waste (HLW) and other wastes, for conditioning specific low-and intermediate-level waste (L/ILW) streams and for incinerating low-level wastes (LLW). Construction of the facility has been finalised and the operational license was issued in March 2000. Operation of the storage part started in 2001. By the end of 2003, eight transport and storage castes with spent fuel and four casks with vitrified high level waste have been stored. The conditioning and incineration installations are in various stages of commissioning. The realisation of this interim storage facility relieves the time-pressure for establishing final disposal routes.
Program for disposal of L/ILW
In 1994, the application for the federal general license for a L/ILW repository at the Wellenberg site was submitted and a request for a mining concession for the repository was made to the Canton of Nidwald, where the proposed repository was to be sited. A public referendum in June 1995 refused to grant the mining concession by a narrow margin (52% for and 48% against). Within the framework of the general license application, the safety authority's review came to positive conclusions. However, because the project was blocked on the political level, the general license procedure has been suspended since 1997.
By request of the Federal Energy Minister, a working group discussed the technical and socio-economic aspects of the Wellenberg project. In September 1998 the work of the technical group ended with positive results. From mid-1999 until early 2000 a new governmental working group EKRA (Expertengruppe Entsorgungskonzepte Radioaktive Abfälle) evaluated different waste management concepts and reviewed the Wellenberg project. Their report issued in February 2000 recommends continuing with the site investigation process.
In order to take into account public concerns (mainly monitoring/retrievability and public involvement in decision making), the strategy for repository implementation has been adapted by the implementers. They adopted a step-wise approach. In a first step, the concession will be restricted to an exploratory drift. The repository project has been modified to include a phase of long-term monitoring and easier retrievability.
In March 2000, the federal government and the government of the Canton of Nidwald agreed to continue site investigations and defined the steps to be taken. A new application for a mining concession only for the exploratory drift was submitted in January 2001. The granting of this concession was rejected at referendum in September 2002 by 57.5% of the citizens. As a consequence of this rejection, the site of Wellenberg had to be abandoned. A new site selection has now to be carried out.
Program for disposal of HLW and long-lived ILW
Within the HLW/ILW repository programme, two host rock options are considered: Crystalline Bedrock (for which a comprehensive evaluation has been performed in 1994) and Opalinus Clay. The next milestone of the HLW program is to demonstrate that safe disposal is feasible in Switzerland.
A corresponding project has been submitted to the federal government in December 2002. It is based on a model repository in Opalinus Clay in Zurich Weinland region. The geological database is provided by the results of the deep exploratory drilling at Benken, a 3D-seismic survey over an area of about 50 km2 around Benken and the experiments at the Mont Terri rock laboratory. The project was reviewed by the Commission of Nuclear Waste Management (KNE) who published a report of their findings in Feburary 2005. The decision of the Federal government is expected in 2006, which will establish the next steps of the HLW programme.
For additional information on the Swiss radioactive waste management programme please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries.
The basis of the Swiss federal energy research, development and demonstration (RD&D) policy has been setout in the Concept of Swiss Federal Energy Research 2004-2007 in which regulatory safety research is mentioned with respect to the decommissioning of nuclear power plants and the safe disposal of radioactive wastes. It is the sixth such document since 1984. The Concept is intended to serve as a guideline for decision-makers in the energy research field within the Swiss federal administration, and at the same time as an energy research "roadmap" for the Cantons and the local authorities.
These energy research concepts have been applied and proven to be sound guidelines. According to the concept, the aim of RD&D is to help the realisation of the basic objectives of Swiss energy policy: to ensure an energy supply that is safe, environmentally sound and economically feasible in the long-term; to secure the production and distribution of a sufficient amount of energy under optimal economic and ecological conditions; and to contribute to the rational and efficient use of energy. Its long-term goal is a significant reduction of carbon dioxide emissions, leading to what is known as the "2000 Watt Society". In the shorter term, this calls for serious efforts to reduce pollution through the development of improved energy technology as well as through a more efficient use of energy. Technical progress alone will not be sufficient to accomplish these objectives and significant socio-economic changes will also be required.
The co-ordination and monitoring of public sector energy RD&D programmes is one of the tasks of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE). It acts on advice from the Federal Energy Research Commission. The office's duties include the updating of Swiss energy RD&D, putting research findings to good use, liaising with private sector energy RD&D programmes and ensuring links with international research projects.
In order to consider long-lasting effects in the policy of planning with respect to energy supply concepts, nuclear energy plays a significant role. Since almost 40% of the energy produced in Switzerland is nuclear, its research budget is actually approximately half that of renewable energy.
For the operation of nuclear power plants, radiation protection and the disposal of radioactive waste in Switzerland, safety research plays a predominant role. The Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) plays a significant role in regulatory research activities and in addition guarantees that the scientific knowledge in nuclear technology be maintained in the future. It is of crucial importance that all safety-related areas be covered in the monitoring of national and international documents in order to keep in touch with the latest developments (a requirement of the Nuclear Energy Law). When prioritising new research programmes the Swiss Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (HSK) takes into account two goals: the promotion of areas required for the improvement of technical and operational aspects important for the review of nuclear power plants; and the maintenance of competence itself making Switzerland attractive for research and industry. For the safety of Swiss nuclear power plants, it is important to have a minimum number of scientists and technical experts within Switzerland, since buying know-how from abroad will decrease national independence and the trustworthiness of inspection activities.
Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI)
The PSI is a multi-disciplinary research centre for natural sciences and technology. In national and international collaboration with universities, other research institutes and industry, PSI is active in the following areas: solid state physics; materials sciences; elementary particle physics; life sciences; nuclear and non-nuclear energy research; and energy-related ecology.
The Institute's priorities lie in areas of basic and applied research, particularly in fields which are relevant for sustainable development, as well as of major importance for teaching and training, but which are beyond the possibilities of a single university department. PSI develops and operates complex research installations which call for especially high standards of know-how, experience and professionalism. The institute is one of the world's leading user laboratories for the national and international scientific community. Through its research, PSI acquires new basic knowledge and actively pursues applications in industry.
The mission of the PSI is to:
The Swiss Synchrotron Light Source (SLS) of the PSI started operating in August 2001. The investment costs for this facility are CHF 159 million (Swiss Francs). The Spallation Neutron Source (SINQ) has been in operation for over seven years and produces neutrons with a proton beam on a SINQ target of more then 1.7 mA. SINQ is a continuous Spallation Neutron Source with a flux of about 10E14 n s-1 cm-2, the first of its kind in the world. SINQ and SLS initiated a strong shift of the research focus towards the study of the structure of materials and to strengthen the national and international user-lab mission of PSI for universities, other research institutions and for industrial laboratories. About two thirds of the annual budget of PSI is dedicated to the user-lab mission.
Energy research
Nuclear energy research at PSI will be reduced further and concentrated for the planning period 2004-2007, on reactor safety and safety-related operational problems at Swiss nuclear power plants and on nuclear waste disposal. Within this reduced effort, safety features of advanced reactor concepts, which rely on inherent safety mechanisms and on passive system layouts (to a greater extent than today's plants), will continue to be investigated.
Presently, the PSI invests almost 180 person years per year in nuclear energy-related activities. One third of the overall costs of nuclear energy research is externally funded by Swiss utilities, the National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste (NAGRA), the Safety Authority (HSK) and other supporting research agencies. Most of this support occurs within the framework of long-term research contracts, and several projects have been approved under the EU Framework Programmes.
The goals of nuclear energy research at PSI are to:
The LWR safety research programme is centred on transient analyses of Swiss nuclear power plants and on nuclear power plant life extension (ageing and other material problems). Further effort is invested in safety-related operational issues of existing nuclear power plants (for example primary water contamination, PIE). Research on severe accidents and man-machine interaction is conducted in the framework of international co-operation (namely, the PHEBUS program in France and the Halden Reactor Project in Norway).
The waste management research program mainly focuses on performance and safety assessment of waste repositories (the characterisation of waste forms, repository near-field and far-field studies). Emphasis is put on development of models of relevant mechanisms for nuclide transport in the geosphere and their validation by experiments, and on data acquisition for safety analysis. The work is done in close co-operation with NAGRA.
The research programme on the safety of advanced reactor systems today concentrates mainly on topics relating to advanced LWRs. The investigation of passive decay heat removal and fission product retention in advanced LWRs is undertaken at PSI with a large experimental facility (PANDA), in close co-operation with the EPRI research program and with the financial support of the Swiss utilities. The aim of the program is to analyse passive safety features of advanced PWR and BWR concepts from industrial partners.
Well-established bilateral relations with French and German authorities in the nuclear field have been cultivated by the Swiss government. Within this framework, French and Swiss regulatory authorities began common inspections of their nuclear installations. Differences between the two inspection systems were mainly found in the formality of inspections, the extension of inspection programmes and the training of inspectors. Since these inspections have been very instructive for both parties, they will be repeated in the coming years.
Switzerland welcomes the efforts made by the OECD to enforce collaboration between the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA). At the NEA, the Swiss Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (HSK) is represented on the: Committee on Nuclear Regulatory Activities (CNRA); Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (CSNI); Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health (CRPPH); and Radioactive Waste Management Committee (RWMC). Besides, HSK is involved in the decision-making bodies and teams of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), in particular: the commission for safety standards (CSS); the Nuclear Safety Standards Committee (NUSSC); the Radiation Safety Standards Committee (RASSC); the Transport Safety Standards Advisory Committee (TRANSCC); and the Waste Safety Standards Committee (WASSC). Further international unions in which HSK participates are: the Western European Nuclear Regulators' Association (WENRA); the Nuclear Regulatory Working Group of the European Commission (NRWG); and the Network of Regulators of Countries with small Nuclear Programs (NERS).
In November 2003 the first review meeting with respect to the "Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management" took place in Vienna. The Joint Convention is the first international instrument that deals with the safety of management and storage of radioactive waste and spent fuel in countries with and without nuclear programmes. It also considerably elaborates on and expands the existing IAEA nuclear safety regime and promotes international standards in the area ensuring that there are effective defenses against potential hazards during all stages of management of such materials, and preventing accidents with radiological consequences. It has been recognised that within the framework of its national law Switzerland has taken all the necessary legislative, regulatory, and administrative measures for implementing its obligations under this Convention. In addition to the above mentioned review process a group of international experts verified the safety aspects within the demonstration of disposal feasibility.
With the start in 2002 of Project SWISS-UKRAINE, the abilities, experience and effectiveness of the Ukrainian nuclear safety authorities should improve. The work is concentrated on the training of personnel and on the transfer of knowledge in the field of the most important safety activities. The financing of the project is guaranteed by DEZA and IAEA.
The third and last stage of Project SWISRUS, in progress since 1994, was tackled in mid 2002. By means of a concrete safety analysis for the Russian pressurised water reactor Novovoronezh-5, employees of the Russian regulatory agency were trained in the handling of modern analysis tools.
SWISRUS III has as its goals to carry out probabilistic safety analyses for the plant status of shut-down and reduced power, to build up an official quality management program, and to implement new guidelines for Russian nuclear power stations.
Nuclear safety is one of the major concerns worldwide. It goes without saying that the risk coming from a malfunctioning nuclear power plant cannot be confined within the national borders of a country, and that a possible incident might have catastrophic consequences on neighboring nations. Therefore Switzerland supports Eastern European countries in maintaining and improving the safety of their nuclear installations. In this respect HSK participated substantially in the conception, introduction, and establishment, using its experience, of the Centre for Nuclear Safety in Eastern European Europe (CENS). Opened in Bratislava (Slovakia) in September 2002 this new centre of competence focuses on training and further education of employees and of the supervisory authorities. Financially supported by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (DEZA), CENS helps nuclear safety authorities carry out safety analyses in Eastern Europe in order to become independent and to elaborate networking among all involved stakeholders. It benefits from synergies and collaborations with international organisations in the field of nuclear safety. Very important partners are: the IAEA; the US Nuclear Safety Commission (NRC); the NEA; and the German Gesellschaft für Anlagen und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS).
In 2003, only one year after its inauguration, CENS became financially independent to a degree of 50%. In August 2003 it was certified as meeting the standards set out under ISO 9001:2000 which is primarily concerned with "quality management" and creating transparency. Several orders and contracts from the IAEA and the GRS, but also training courses such as "Severe accident analysis and MELCOR Code" and the "Effective Inspection Training Course", helped make CENS an internationally-recognised competence centre. At the moment it is involved in the preparation with the Armenian authority to obtain an ISO-certified quality management system.
There is no University level nuclear engineering degree in Switzerland. However, nuclear technology related courses are offered at the Federal Institutes of Technology in Zurich (ETHZ) and Lausanne (EPFL). The EPFL operates a research reactor for educational purposes. At the Canton level, the University of Basel offers courses in reactor physics and operates a research reactor for educational purposes. Nuclear education and training at the technical level is offered at a "reactor" school for nuclear plant operators at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which makes use of the reactors in Lausanne and Basel. Power plant operators also receive on-the-job training and continuing training at their facilities.
In November 1945, the Swiss Government established the independent Atomic Energy Committee with the mandate to advise the government in all civilian and military matters dealing with nuclear energy. In 1946, the Swiss government mandated the Atomic Energy Committee to investigate all aspects dealing with nuclear weapons, to prepare the necessary measures for protecting the army and the population against their impact and also to study what would be required to develop such weapons. On 18 March 1957, the Swiss parliament ratified the IAEA Statute which was brought into force on 29 July 1957. In 1969, Switzerland signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Parliament ratified it on 9 March 1977.
As early as 1946, Brown Boveri & Cie (BBC), now Asea Brown Boveri AG (ABB), took the first steps to build up a team of physicists and to launch a development program. BBC was later joined by Sulzer Brothers and Escher-Wyss. Initial studies dealt with graphite-carbon dioxide reactor concepts, but from 1952 on, the development concentrated on heavy water moderated reactors with the subsequent planning of the research reactor DIORIT. In 1955, more than 150 private companies joined forces and formed the company "Reactor Ltd" to build and operate the new privately-owned research center, in Würenlingen, with two reactors on the site: SAPHIR and DIORIT. In 1960, the Swiss Government took over the research center, well known under its abbreviation EIR (Eidgenössisches Institut für Reaktorforschung). In 1988, the fusion of EIR and SIN (Schweizerisches Institut für Nuklearphysik) led to the creation of the Paul Scherrer Institute.
In Switzerland, the nuclear age began on 30 April 1957, when the SAPHIR research reactor went critical under the responsibility of Swiss scientists and engineers. This swimming pool reactor had been purchased in 1955 from the American government, after being exhibited in Geneva during the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. SAPHIR was shut down at the end of 1993. Decommissioning work, based on a license granted in 2000, is still continuing. The SAPHIR research reactor is currently in the safe enclosure stage of decommissioning. The next stage, the dismantling project, has been approved by Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (HSK) and has been licensed by the federal government.
DIORIT, the first reactor designed and constructed in Switzerland, reached criticality on 15 August 1960. It was moderated and cooled by heavy water; the fuel was initially natural uranium; and a special loop allowed testing of power reactor fuel elements. DIORIT was shut down in 1977. At the end of 2003 all radioactive material was removed from the reactor building.
In 1962 construction began on of the experimental nuclear power reactor in Lucens, a 30 MW(th), 6 MW(e), heavy-water moderated, carbon dioxide cooled reactor located in an underground cavern. Criticality was reached in late 1966 and commissioning in early 1968. In spite of numerous difficulties, the supply consortium led by Sulzer Brothers had demonstrated that Swiss industry was capable of building nuclear plants. The goal was the development of a small to medium-sized power reactor fuelled with natural uranium within a massive containment system. During the mid 1960s enriched uranium was becaming easily available, the unit size of commercially offered LWR nuclear power plants increased drastically and Swiss utilities started construction of such plants very early. The interest in the Lucens reactor type decreased and further large expenses for such development could not be justified. It was decided to operate the reactor until the end of 1969, unfortunately, on 21 January 1969, the plant was abruptly put out of service by a partial core meltdown that destroyed the integrity of the primary system and released radioactivity into the cavern. After decontamination, decommissioning and termination of the intermediate storage of radioactive material the whole site was made ready for unrestricted reuse in 2003.
A turnkey contract was awarded, by Nordostschweizerische Kraftwerke AG (NOK), in August 1965 to a consortium made up of Westinghouse International Atomic Power Co, Ltd. and Brown Bovery & Cie for the supply of a 350 MW(e) plant equipped with a pressurised water reactor and two turbo-generators (Beznau). In late 1967, NOK took the option to order a duplicate of the first unit. Beznau I reached criticality by the end of June 1969, and Beznau II in October 1972.
Also in 1965, Bernische Kraftwerke AG (BKW) chose a 306 MW(e) plant equipped with a boiling water reactor manufactured by General Electric (GE) and twin turbo-generators from BBC (Mühleberg). In July 1971, full power was achieved, but on 28 July a turbine fire broke out. Sixteen months later the plant was officially handed to the owner.
In 1973, a supply contract was signed by a consortium of Swiss utilities with Kraftwerk Union (Siemens) for the delivery of a 900 MW(e) pressurised water reactor and turbo-generator (Gösgen). Construction of the plant went very smoothly with the first connection to the grid in February and an 80% power test in March 1979. However, the accident at Three Mile Island on 29 March 1979 led to an eight month delay in commissioning.
In December 1973, a consortium of Swiss utilities and one German utility awarded a turnkey contract to General Electric Technical Services Overseas (GETSCO) and BBC for the supply of a 940 MW(e) nuclear power plant equipped with a boiling water reactor (Leibstadt). Construction began in 1974 and the plant was commissioned in December 1984.
In the course of time all Swiss nuclear power plants have upgraded their power capacity. At the end of 2002, the nominal net powers for Swiss nuclear power plants were: 365 MW(e) each for the two Beznau units, 355 MW(e) for Mühleberg, 970 MW(e) for Gösgen and 1165 MW(e) for Leibstadt.
Nuclear controversy first began in Switzerland in 1969 with the first signs of local opposition to a nuclear plant project at Kaiseraugst, near Basel. For 20 years, the Kaiseraugst project was to remain centre stage in the nuclear controversy, with the the process following: site permit; local referenda; legal battles; site occupation by opponents in 1975; parliamentary vote in favor of construction in 1985; and finally a parliamentary decision in 1989 to end the project definitively. The Chernobyl accident of spring 1986 drastically affected the political climate. Another project, less advanced than Kaiseraugst, Graben was also cancelled.
The nuclear controversy led to several anti-nuclear initiatives on the federal level:
In 1972, specific steps toward the realisation of Swiss disposal facilities were initiated through the formation of NAGRA, which brings together the operators of nuclear power plants and the Federal government. NAGRA must ensure that in the near future low-and medium-level radioactive wastes can begin to be stored in a final repository, and that at a later stage (about 2020) a separate deep disposal site will be ready to receive the high-level radioactive wastes to be returned by the fuel reprocessing plants abroad. Two interim storages for low-and medium-level radioactive waste have been operative since 1993:
At one third capacity, "ZWILAG" (Central interim storage for radioactive wastes from all Swiss nuclear power plants ), located beside the Paul Scherrer Institute, has been operative since 2001.
The continuation of project work for a final storage for low-and medium-level radioactive wastes at Wellenberg in central Switzerland, has been stopped by the negative outcome of a Cantonal referendum in 2002. The search for a suitable storage site now has to start again.
The appointment of nuclear safety authorities in Switzerland has been based on the nuclear law of 1959. The Federal Nuclear Safety Commission was set up in 1960, consisting initially of 9 members and 1 scientific secretary, today it comprises of 13 members and 3 scientific secretaries. The first secretary's office was developed over time into the Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate, comprising initially of 39 persons in 1980 and approximately 90 persons today.
For additional information on national laws and regulations concerning nuclear power please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Analytical Study of Nuclear Legislation in OECD countries.
After a two-year consultation phase, the Federal Act on Nuclear Energy was adopted by parliament in March 2003, and entered into force on 1 February 2005 at the same time as its implementing ordinance. The revision process on the 1959 Federal Acts on Atomic Energy and on the 1978 Federal Decree on the atomic energy act, which lasted for the past 30 years, were therefore terminated.
From now on, the construction and operation of nuclear facilities and any changes in their purpose, nature or size requires a general licence prior to the granting of technical licenses. The general licence delivered by the Federql Council determines the site and the main features of the project.
The application for a general licence must be particularly accompanied by:
The Federal Council transmits the application for consultation to the Cantons, federal authorities and neighbour countries concerned. It also arranges for various expert reports to be prepared, mainly by the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate. The application, the statements and experts' reports are made available to the public along with any supporting documents. Anyone may then submit written objections to the Federal Chancellery concerning the granting of the general license.
The site Canton, neighboring Cantons and countries enjoy extended participation rights, as they must be involved in the general licence granting procedure. Their concerns need to be considered as far as they do not unproportionally restrict the project. Finally, after having examined the application, the opinions given during the consultations, the experts' reports and any objection made, the Federal Council reaches a positive or negative decision; the granting of a general license must also be approved by the Federal Assembly. A referendum can be held against the approval, by the Federal Government: 50 000 voters can demand a public vote on the project. If the Swiss electorate ratifies the project, the application for a construction licence may be submitted.
Licences for constructing, operating, modifying or decommissioning a nuclear installation as well as licences for geological investigations with regard to the construction of a deep geological depository are primarily of a technical nature since the main requirements relate to nuclear safety. The new provision is that all other procedures for non-nuclear licenses necessary for the realisation of the project, will be integrated in the same procedure (namely, Cantonal licenses concerning construction and land use planning and the protection of workers). Thus, there will be only one single licence granted by the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication. The application for a license for constructing, operating or modifying a nuclear installation must be particularly accompanied by a technical report (safety analysis report). All further documentation must be submitted according to the respective non-nuclear laws.
The documents necessary for the license will be published for public consultation. The concerned parties according to the administrative procedure have the possibility to appeal. The Canton where the installation is to be located will also be consulted. If the Canton rejects the application and if the Federal Department wants to grant the license, the Canton can appeal against this decision.
Note: Reference to the original publication is given in parenthesis: (RO 732. 0).
The following data apply to the currently applicable, most important decrees. Some of them, as mentioned above, will gradually be replaced.
General legislation
Protection against Radiation
Civil liability
In May 2003, the Swiss electorate rejected two popular initiatives on nuclear power ("Moratorium Plus" which aimed at the extension of the ban on the construction of new nuclear power plants for another ten years until 2010, and "Strom ohne Atom" which demanded the gradual closure of all existing Swiss nuclear power plants after a 30 year life-span, and the stop of any reprocessing of spent fuel).
The new Nuclear Energy Law which had been adopted by parliament in March 2003 entered into force on 1 February 2005.
Current legislation does not prohibit competition in the Swiss power sector, but it is prevented in the absence of third-party access obligations. The Cantonal legislation on public service obligations and monopolies is generally vague because it was established long before discussions about market reform. However, in most cases distributors do have an obligation to supply in their areas.
In December 2000, parliament passed the Electricity Market Law (EML) to liberalise the electricity market. The power industry and consumers welcomed the law, considering that it would: reduce prices; provide a more stable energy investment climate; improve international competitiveness; and harmonise the Swiss power market with the rest of Western Europe. Major opposition to the law came from labor unions that argued that the law would lead to privatisation of the distribution companies and to job cuts in the electricity industry. They also argued that electricity prices would increase and that the electricity sector needed to remain regulated to avoid power shortages and speculative behavior. In the public referendum held in September 2002, the EML was rejected by a majority of the electorate.
Currently, most of the parties agree that efficiency needs to be increased in the electricity sector and that it would be detrimental for Switzerland to fall behind European development. Following rejection of the EML, several parliamentary initiatives were submitted on the subject of the electricity market. The Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication appointed an expert commission in March 2003. Its purpose was to lay down the basic form the new electricity industry structure should take with the help of the support groups. The consultation procedure lasted until 30 September 2004, and as of January 2006 the Electricity Supply Act was still in draft form.
The two topical areas for nuclear energy research and development are fission and fusion. The majority of funds within the fission area are directed at research and development to improve the safety of existing power plants. Only a small amount of funds is directed towards future fission energy systems. The government also spends a relatively minor amount of public money on research and development relating to radioactive waste, with the majority of funding coming from NAGRA. Almost all research and development work related to fission is accomplished at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI). In February 2002, Switzerland became a member of the Generation IV International Forum, and is planning on participating in forthcoming research projects as a means of maintaining and using the technical competence of the PSI.
Participation in international fusion research (EURATOM) through experiments using facilities located in Switzerland remains the focus of fusion research. The main nuclear fusion areas of research relate to plasma physics with the bulk of activity occurring at the Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne. Fusion is perceived as a long-term alternative and only basic research is being pursued at this time.
Publicly-funded energy research and development decreased steadily and significantly, by about 30%, from 1992 through to 2000. Both the public and private sectors fund energy research and development. In 2001, 10% (CHF 51 million) of the totality of private and public funding was used for research and development on nuclear power.
Switzerland places emphasis on the importance of international collaboration given its limited research and development resources.
According to Swiss law, the safe handling and disposal of radioactive waste are the responsibility of the waste producers. In 1972, the utilities operating nuclear power plants and the Confederation, which is responsible for radioactive waste from research activities and radioisotope production and uses, founded the National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste (NAGRA). NAGRA is responsible for the disposal of all categories of radioactive waste and for any research and development that may be required.
Expenditures associated with the management and disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear power plants are financed by waste producers (nuclear utilities), and charged to consumers as a component of electricity prices. The Confederation manages the Radioactive Waste Management Fund that which was established in 2000 to secure the costs of radioactive waste disposal after the decommissioning of a nuclear power plant.
Nuclear power plant owners are responsible for funding their decommissioning. The total estimated costs of decommissioning the five units currently in operation amount to CHF 1 800 million. The Confederation manages the decommissioning that was established in 1984 to ensure that the necessary funds are available for decommissioning nuclear power plants after 40 years of operation. The nuclear utilities pay contributions to this fund on an annual basis.
Currently, Switzerland has no radioactive waste disposal facilities. Until final repositories become operational, all categories of radioactive waste are held in interim storage facilities either at the nuclear power plants or at a centralised facility. In 2001, a centralised interim storage facility, located on the site of the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) at Würenlingen, began to accept intermediate- and high-level waste. The facility is operated by Zwischenlager Würenlingen (ZWILAG), a utility-owned organisation. A repository project for low-and intermediate-level waste had been planned at Wellenberg in central Switzerland. However, the electorate rejected a bill that would have permitted the construction of an underground test facility.
A repository for high-level waste will not be required before 2020. NAGRA is pursuing a programme based on the concept of a deep geological repository and focusing on the crystalline bedrock of northern Aargau and the opalinus clay of the Zürcher Weinland in the northern part of the Swiss plateau.
In 2002, Nagra submitted a report demonstrating how and where spent fuel, high-level and long-lived intermediate-level waste can be safely disposed of in Switzerland. The federal safety authorities are currently evaluating the report with a view to allowing the government to take a decision regarding the management of these wastes around 2006. Identification of a site will be the subject of a later general license procedure.
The government has analysed the impacts of different scenarios on the electricity generation mix and on the CO2 emissions up to the year 2030. These analyses (energy perspectives) are currently being revised and extended to the year 2050. The nuclear phase-out scenarios induce substantially higher CO2 emissions than the reference scenario (with continuous use of nuclear power until the end of the operation periods of the existing nuclear power plants ).
Appendix 1 - International, Multilateral and Bilateral Agreements
IEA Energy Statistics: Switzerland
Data available in the following areas: Coal, oil and gas use; Electricity production, supply and consumption; Heat production, supply and consumption; Graphs of sectorial final consumption by source in 1973 and 2001.
The Decommissioning and Dismantling of Nuclear Facilities in OECD/NEA Member Countries: Switzerland
This compilation of national fact sheets is intended to serve as an authoritative source of reference information on individual NEA member countries. In this context, the term "nuclear facility" includes all facilities associated with the production of nuclear power, from mining of uranium, through fabrication of nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant operation, fuel reprocessing and waste management, including related R&D facilities, and research and demonstration reactors.
Nuclear Legislation in OECD Countries: Switzerland
Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear Activities
Each country profile in this valuable reference work provides a detailed review of a full range of nuclear law topics. These include: the general regulatory regime, including mining; radioactive substances and equipment; nuclear installations; trade in nuclear materials; radiation protection; radioactive waste management; non-proliferation and physical protection; transport; and nuclear third party liability.
Nuclear Energy Data
Nuclear Energy Data is the NEA’s annual compilation of essential statistics on electricity generation and nuclear power in OECD countries. The reader will have quick and easy reference to the status of and projected trends in total electricity generating capacity, nuclear generating capacity, and actual electricity production, as well as to supply and demand for nuclear fuel cycle services.
This is an edited extract from the IAEA Country Nuclear Power Profile of Switzerland, compiled in 2003. The complete entry is available from the IAEA.
Last updated: 15 March 2006
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