Sweden

Nuclear power situation

• Nuclear power plants: Status and operations
• Current organisational chart
• Supply of nuclear power plants
• Operation of nuclear power plants
• Fuel cycle and waste management
• Research and development activities
• International co-operation and initiatives
• Historical development and current nuclear power organisational structure

National laws and regulations

• Safety authority and the licensing process
• Main national laws and regulations governing nuclear power

Current issues and developments

• Energy policy
• Privatisation and deregulation
• Related links
• Related NEA publications

Nuclear power situation

	Number of nuclear units connected to the grid	Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh)	Nuclear percentage of total electricity supply
Sweden	10	64.3	47.4
OECD Europe	145	879.6	25.8
OECD TOTAL	346 (out of 439 worldwide)	2172.5	21.6

Source: Nuclear Energy Data 2008. The complete table for all OECD member countries is also available.

Nuclear power plants: Status and operations

Sweden has ten nuclear units representing a total capacity of 9.24 GW(e). In 2007, the electricity generated by nuclear power plants amounted to 64.1 TW h and supplied some 44.3 % of the total electricity production of the country. Nuclear power generation in Sweden during 2007 was 64.1 TWh. Table 1 shows the status of the Swedish nuclear power plants.

The annual output of the three Oskarshamn units was 15.2 TWh, corresponding to 10.5 % of Sweden 's overall electricity generation. The corresponding figures for the four units at Ringhals are 25.5 TWh, and 17.6 % respectively and for the three units at Forsmark, they are 23.4 TWh, and 16.2 % respectively.

Table 1. Status of Nuclear Power Plants

Unit/Station	Type	Capacity	Operator	Status	Reactor Supplier	Construction Date	Criticality Date	Grid Date	Commercial Date	Shutdown Date
BARSEBÄCK-2	BWR	600	BKAB	Shut Down	ASEAATOM	01-Jan-73	20-Feb-77	21-Mar-77	01-Jul-77
FORSMARK-1	BWR	1014	FKA	Operational	ASEAATOM	01-Jun-73	23-Apr-80	06-Jun-80	10-Dec-80
FORSMARK-2	BWR	1014	FKA	Operational	ASEAATOM	01-Jan-75	16-Nov-80	26-Jan-81	07-Jul-81
FORSMARK-3	BWR	1190	FKA	Operational	ASEAATOM	01-Jan-79	28-Oct-84	05-Mar-85	18-Aug-85
OSKARSHAMN-1	BWR	487	OKG	Operational	ASEA	01-Aug-66	12-Dec-70	19-Aug-71	06-Feb-72
OSKARSHAMN-2	BWR	623	OKG	Operational	ASEAATOM	01-Sep-69	06-Mar-74	02-Oct-74	01-Jan-75
OSKARSHAMN-3	BWR	1197	OKG	Operational	ASEAATOM	01-May-80	29-Dec-84	03-Mar-85	15-Aug-85
RINGHALS-1	BWR	880	VAB	Operational	ASEAATOM	01-Feb-69	20-Aug-73	14-Oct-74	01-Jan-76
RINGHALS-2	PWR	870	VAB	Operational	WEST	01-Oct-70	19-Jun-74	17-Aug-74	01-May-75
RINGHALS-3	PWR	1010	VAB	Operational	WEST	01-Sep-72	29-Jul-80	07-Sept-80	09-Sep-81
RINGHALS-4	PWR	915	VAB	Operational	WEST	01-Nov-73	19-May-82	23-Jun-82	21-Nov-83
BARSEBÄCK-1	BWR	600	BKAB	Shut Down	ASEAATOM	01-Feb-71	18-Jan-75	15-May-75	01-Jul-75	30-Nov-99
AGESTA	PHWR	10	VAB	Shut Down	ASEA	01-Dec-57	17-Jul-63	01-May-64	01-May-64	02-Jun-74
Marviken	BHWR	130	VAB	Never started	ASEA

Source: IAEA Power Reactor Information System as of 31 December 2002, Country Information

Current organisational chart

The structure of the nuclear-electric sector in Sweden is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Structure of the nuclear-electric sector in Sweden

Supply of nuclear power plants

ABB Atom (formerly ASEA Atom and currently Westinghouse Electric Sweden) has designed and delivered nine BWRs in Sweden and two in Finland. ABB Atom used to have internal capabilities including architect engineering, but during the 1980s, due to lack of new orders, the utilities in Sweden took the main responsibility for co-ordination of nuclear power projects such as power up-grading.

The reactor fuel, control rods and control rod drives were manufactured by ABB Atom. The control rooms and most of the electric components were manufactured by sister organisations to ABB Atom within ABB (formerly ASEA). The turbines and all types of heat exchangers were manufactured by ABB (formerly ASEA Stal in Sweden and Brown Boveri Company in Switzerland). Sandvik AB is a Swedish manufacturer of fuel canning tubes and steam generator tubes.

Besides Vattenfall, which had its own capacity for civil engineering and building, such work were performed by, SWECO (formerly VBB-VIAK), NCC and SKANSKA.

Operation of nuclear power plants

The operators and some of the owners of Swedish nuclear power plants are shown in Figure 1. Some additional information about the power utilities is given in Table 2. It should be mentioned that all the operators are relatively independent of their parent organisations when it comes to technical capability.

Maintenance services are supplied by Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB (previously ABB Atom), Tekniska Röntgencentralen, Alstom Power (previously ABB Stal) and several other Swedish companies. Major maintenance service companies in Germany , France and the UK are often engaged for work at Swedish nuclear power plants.

Kärnkraftsäkerhet och Utbildning AB, KSU (the Nuclear Training and Safety Centre) has full scale nuclear power plant simulators in operation and have been responsible for the training of many of Sweden 's nuclear power operators. KSU also provides nuclear power plant technicians with complementary education, at the university level, in nuclear power related topics. KSU participates in the work on nuclear safety performed within the Swedish utilities and co-ordinates these efforts. KSU also provides information regarding operating experience in the Swedish plants internationally. KSU was reorganised during 2001 and some of the full scale simulators will be moved and rebuilt at their corresponding nuclear power plant site.

Table 2. Nuclear Power Plant Ownership

Fuel cycle and waste management

Swedish utilities import all of their uranium and enrichment service needs. Westinghouse (previously ABB Atom) manufactures reactor fuel both for BWRs and PWRs. Half of the deliveries are to utilities abroad. The Swedish utilities buy part of their fuel elements from abroad. The spent fuel from all the Swedish nuclear power plants is transported by boat to a central interim storage (CLAB). The facility started operation in 1985 and is situated close to the Oskarshamn nuclear power plant. It has been substantially expanded over the last several years.

Some low-level waste is deposed of at local dumps, while some is incinerated at Studsvik. All other waste from reactor operations is transported to the final repository for radioactive operational waste (SFR), which has been in operation since 1988. SFR is located close to the Forsmark nuclear power plant. Most of the waste from decommissioning of the reactors will be disposed of at SFR.

Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB, SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste management Company) built and owns the CLAB, SFR and the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. SKB acts on behalf of the nuclear utilities in conducting extensive research and development, and demonstration work with regard to the facilities for the final disposal of long-lived spent nuclear fuel. SKB is also responsible for the co-ordination and investigation of the costs for nuclear waste and future decommissioning. SFR and CLAB are operated by Forsmark Kraftgrupp and OKG respectively on behalf on SKB. SKB is jointly owned by the Swedish utilities.

For additional information on the Swedish radioactive waste management programme please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries.

Research and development activities

AB Atomenergi started in the late 1950s the National Nuclear Power Laboratory at Studsvik. Later it was transformed into a general energy laboratory, although most of the activities at the site are now managed by Studsvik AB, which is still heavily involved in the nuclear area. Studsvik AB is today a private organisation and offers components, services and consulting. The test reactor R2 (50 MW) was permanently shut down in 2005. Future reactor-related works are planned to be carried out together with IFE Halden, Norway .

Most of the reactor safety research and development is directed by nuclear power operators and by the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate (SKI) and the Swedish National Institute of Radiation Protection (SSI). Research is carried out at universities, Westinghouse Electric Sweden, Studsvik, and at the Vattenfall central laboratory and other research institutes. There is no central planning of the research and development activities in the nuclear field in Sweden.

SKB has been directing a large research programme for developing safe waste disposal methods. The research has been conducted in collaboration with universities, institutes of technology, and other research institutions in Sweden and abroad.

International co-operation and initiatives

Most of the Swedish contacts with International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) are through official channels managed in the nuclear field by SKI and SSI.

KSU analyses and evaluates operating experience gained at other nuclear power plants worldwide, which can benefit the operation of the Swedish plants. KSU have also been the main communication channel between the Swedish utilities and the nuclear safety organisations WANO and INPO.

SKB has a broad network of international contacts. Formal co-operation agreements exist with the following organisations:

• CEC/EURATOM, EU;
• TVO/Fortum, Finland;
• CEA/ANDRA, France;
• JNFL, Japan;
• AECL, Canada;
• Nagra, Switzerland; and
• DOE, USA.

The following organisations have signed agreements of participation in the Aspö Hard Rock Laboratory project: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL); Power Reactor & Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC), Japan; Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), Japan; ANDRA of France; TVO, Finland;, NIREX, UK; DOE, USA; and Nagra, Switzerland.

Historical development and current nuclear power organisational structure

The first interest in "atomic energy" from the Swedish government was shown in 1947, when AB Atomenergi was established as a research organisation. Up to 1955, the programme was orientated towards basic research and concentrated on a small natural uranium/heavy water reactor.

In 1956, an official ad hoc commission proposed a research and development programme with the purpose of introducing a national programme for reactors based on natural uranium and heavy water, to produce heat and electricity. AB Atomenergi was to be responsible for the programme. It was known that Sweden had large resources of low-grade uranium ore and the idea was to establish an energy policy almost completely independent of other countries.

In 1958, AB Atomenergi moved most of its activities to a newly established national laboratory, Studsvik. A material testing reactor (R2) started operation in 1960 but was closed down in June 2005.

Vattenfall, at that time closely connected to the government and AB Atomenergi (also State owned), decided in 1957 to build a small reactor for the production of heat and electricity. The name was Ågesta and it started in 1964 to produce 65 MW(th). 55 MW was used for the heating of a suburb in Stockholm and 10 MW for electricity production. The reactor was shut down in 1974.

Construction of a heavy water power reactor, Marviken, based on slightly enriched uranium with the possibility to change to natural uranium, with an electric output of 140 MW using saturated steam of 200 MW using superheated steam, commenced in 1963. The project was stopped in 1970 only a few months before fuel loading and the reactor has never been used for power production. The project was performed in co-operation between AB Atomenergi and Vattenfall, who were jointly responsible for this project, although AB Atomenergi played the leading role.

Eight non state-owned utilities, with Sydkraft as the leader, founded in 1955 Atomkraftkonsortiet, AKK (the Atomic Power Consortium) with the purpose to follow the international development of nuclear power. AKK had early and direct contacts with utilities and vendors in the US . In 1959 AKK asked for governmental approval of a 60 MW BWR project, based on a concept from General Electric, but the project was never carried out.

In 1964, AKK received a bid from ASEA for a project based on a BWR concept of Swedish design. The 460 MW turbine was designed by Stal Laval, a turbine manufacturing company closely related to ASEA. The high pressure system was a double rotating turbine with radial steam flow. This type of turbine was not possible to develop in larger sizes, which later were needed. For deliveries to later nuclear projects, Stal Laval started a co-operation with Brown Bovery Company (BBC) in Switzerland .

AKK was transformed into OKG AB in 1965 with seven shareholders. OKG ordered in 1966 Oskarshamn 1 from ASEA. Oskarshamn 1 was the first LWR reactor in the world to be designed without licence from US vendors. It started commercial operation in 1972.

In 1968, part of AB Atomenergi (mainly the fuel manufacturing) was transferred to ASEA, and a contract between the state and ASEA was signed. The contract also resulted in AB Atomenergi closing its reactor design office. AB Atomenergi later developed as a research and development company, first with emphasis on nuclear energy, but later other types of energy sources were included.

The company ASEA Atom was founded with ownership equally divided between ASEA and the state. The contract with ASEA Atom was in force until 1979, when the ASEA Group became the sole owner of ASEA Atom (later ABB Atom and now Westinghouse Atom).

In 1968, Vattenfall ordered Ringhals 1, a 750 MW BWR from ASEA, and Ringhals 2, a 800 MW PWR from Westinghouse. The primary reason for two orders signed with two different vendors, one Swedish and one foreign, was that Vattenfall wanted to establish a real competitive market in Sweden for the future development of nuclear power. Later, Vattenfall ordered two more Westinghouse PWRs to be built at Ringhals.

In 1969 OKG ordered Oskarshamn 2 and Sydkraft ordered Barsebäck 1 with an option for Barsebäck 2. Thus four nuclear power units were ordered from ASEA Atom before the company's first unit had started to operate.

The explanation for this enormous expansion of nuclear power was that during several years there was a yearly increase in the power consumption of 7%. Further development of hydropower was not allowed because of environmental reasons. Neither the state or the utilities wanted oil fired units to be built because of the increased dependance on oil imports.

During the first half of the 1970s Vattenfall started to co-operate with some non state-owned utilities to build the Forsmark nuclear power plant, where three BWRs are now in operation.

The delegation for atomic energy issues functioned on a small scale from the beginning of 1960s. It was later transformed into the Nuclear Power Inspectorate SKI. Also the National Radiological Institute was operating on a small scale with Professor Rolf Sievert as its enthusiastic leader. Both the authorities became more professional at the end of the 1960s, just before the start of the large LWR programme.

Just before the general election in 1976 nuclear power became a main political issue with the Centre Party being critical on the nuclear waste issue. The leader of the Centre Party became Prime Minister with the government consisting of a non-socialist coalition.

The new government arranged a huge investigation of the risks and the economy of nuclear power compared to other energy sources in an official Ad hoc Energy Commission. In 1977 a unique act regarding nuclear waste was accepted by parliament. According to the new waste act, called the "Stipulation Act", the utilities would not be allowed to load fuel into a new reactor (at the time several were in the pipe line) before it had been shown that it was possible to arrange a final storage of the waste "in an absolutely safe way". Before parliament accepted the act a remark was added in the minutes saying that the word "absolutely" should not be interpreted in a "draconian" way.

The result of this political development was that the utilities started Svensk Kärnbränsleförsörjning AB (SKBF), later Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (SKB, the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company) to develop a comprehensive concept for final storage of high radioactive waste and to make a thorough safety evaluation of the whole concept.

One concept (KBS-1) for the final disposal of reprocessed waste was presented in 1978, followed by another concept (KBS-2) for direct disposal of spent fuel. The further development of this concept (KBS-3) was presented a few years later. In late 1978, the KBS-1 and KBS-2 concepts were accepted by the government as safe enough (but at that time the Centre Party had left the government because of the nuclear controversy). Several reactors were allowed to start loading fuel with reference to this principle decision by the government, but then came the TMI accident.

A week after the TMI accident, all the political parties agreed to arrange a referendum about the future of nuclear power. A special law was established forbidding the start-up of all new reactors until after the referendum. The referendum was arranged in March 1980 and some months later parliament decided in accordance with the result of the referendum to allow the start-up of all the reactors, which were ready or under construction. It was also decided that nuclear power would be phased out by 2010, if new energy sources were available at that time and could be introduced in such a way that it would not effect the social welfare programme and employment in heavy industry. The two last reactors in the programme of twelve started commercial operation in 1985.

A Central Interim Storage Facility for Spent Nuclear Fuel (CLAB) has been in use since 1986 and a Final Repository for Reactor Waste, SFR, has been in operation since 1988. SFR is being used for low-and medium-activity waste. Both these storage facilities can house, with minor extensions, all the spent fuel and reactor waste produced in Swedish reactors up to the year 2010 and beyond. CLAB is situated in the neighbourhood of the Oskarshamn nuclear power plant and SFR is close to Forsmark nuclear power plant.

The Äspö Rock Laboratory for waste disposal experiments in bedrock at 500 metres depth, was completed in 1995 and is situated close to the Oskarshamn nuclear power plant.

The Chernobyl accident resulted in a new political debate about the Swedish nuclear power programme. parliament decided in 1988 that the phase-out of nuclear power would start in the period 1995 to 1996, with two units to be closed. After a few years, industry and labour unions started an intensive debate, because it was shown in official reports that the total cost of early phase out (after 25 years operation instead of 40 years, which is the assumed technical life time of the Swedish reactors) would cost society more than SEK 200 billion (Swedish Kronor). The price of electricity for the electricity intensive industry (paper and steel) would double with the result that between 50 000 to 100 000 people would lose their jobs. The result was that parliament in 1991 decided not to start the phase out in 1995.

The legislation in the nuclear field started with a general "Atomic Energy Act" in 1956, followed by a general Radiation Protection Act in 1958. In 1960, an act about emergency planning in case of a nuclear accident was introduced and in 1968 the Third Party Liability Act was established. In 1977 the "Stipulation Act" became effective and in 1980 parliament passed an act on public control of the safety work at nuclear power stations. Finally in 1981, an act on the financing of future costs for spent nuclear fuel was passed.

In 1984, the whole system of acts on nuclear power was revised. Only small changes were made in the Radiation Protection Act. The Atomic Energy Act, the Stipulation Act, the Act on public control and part of the financing act were combined in one new Act on nuclear activities.

The Stipulation Act was superseded by some paragraphs in the new act requiring each owner of a nuclear facility to ensure a comprehensive research and development programme with the aim to conduct the handling and final disposal in a safe manner of all nuclear waste arising from the operation of the facility. The research and development should also cover future decommissioning and dismantling of the facilities. The nuclear utilities are obliged to present a comprehensive research and development programme for all the future waste problems every third year. The nuclear utilities have handed overall responsibility for the nuclear waste research and development to SKB.

According to the 1981 Financing Act, the nuclear utilities have to pay a fee per produced kWh to a state fund. The fund shall cover all future costs for handling and final storage of all waste and for decommissioning of all the facilities. The average fee during the last five years has been SEK 0.02 per kWh nuclear power.

In 1999 Barsebäck 1, one of Sweden 's 12 reactors, became the first to be definitively shut down. In 2005, Barsebäck 2 was also permanently closed.

Due to increased price on electric power the possibility to increase the power output from the nuclear reactors has been investigated by the utilities. This has resulted in a program to upgrade the power on almost all reactors that will take place between 2007 and 2012. The change from older worn turbine units to new with more efficient technique also contribute to an increased production. In total, the power increase will almost compensate for the closed Barsebäck plants.

National laws and regulations

For additional information on national laws and regulations concerning nuclear power please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Analytical Study of Nuclear Legislation in OECD countries .

Safety authority and the licensing process

Statens kärnkraftinspektion, SKI (Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate)

The Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate reports to the Ministry of the Environment and was appointed by the Nuclear Activities Act to be the main regulatory body for the Swedish nuclear power industry. SKI's principal duties are related to safety issues (safety concerns in nuclear facilities, handling and disposal of spent fuel and safety concerns regarding the transport of nuclear substances), providing technical advice, providing and administering funds and issuing regulations concerning safety aspects of nuclear energy.

Although the SKI carries the main responsibility and authority in relation to the operation of nuclear installations, the Swedish Radiation Protection Institute (Statens strålskyddsinstitut - SSI) also participates in inspections of installations in order to submit an Environmental Impact Assessment (set out in the Environmental Code), together with an application for a permit to construct, possess and operate a nuclear installation.

The two authorities, the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate (SKI) and the Swedish National Institute of Radiation Protection (SSI) will merge into one authority, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, on 1 July 2008.

Main national laws and regulations governing nuclear power

• 1984 Act on Nuclear Activities , 1987, 1995 and 1999 amendments to the Act. 1992 and 1999 Amendment to the Ordinance supplementing the Act;
• 1988 Radiation Protection Act and Ordinance. 1995 and 1999 amendments to the Act, and 1999 amendment to the Ordinance ;
• 1968 Nuclear Liability Act and its latest amendment in 2001;
• 1997 Act on the Phasing out of Nuclear Power;
• 1999 Environmental Code;
• 2004 SKI Regulations on Safety in Nuclear Facilities.

Current issues and developments

Energy policy

The "Nuclear Power Decommisioning Act" became law in January 1998. The Act allows the government, within a specified framework, to decide that the right to operate a nuclear power plant will cease to apply at a certain point in time. Such a decision infers the right to compensation from the state for losses incurred.

In February 1998, the government decided to revoke the operating license for Barsebäck Unit 1, effective 1 July. On 14 May the government decided that the government decision with regard to the closure of Barsebäck 1 would not apply until further notice. During the summer and autumn of 1998 discussions between Sydkraft (owner of the Barsebäck nuclear power plant) and the government continued in order to find a solution. Barsebäck Kraft AB is now part of, and owned by Ringhals AB and both are owned and by Vattenfall and operated by Ringhals AB.

In compliance with the "Decommissioning of Nuclear Power Act", the operating licence for Barsebäck 1 should have expired on 1 July 1998. However, this decision was prevented some months beforehand when Sweden 's Supreme Administrative Court ruled in favour of suspension. The legal review of the government's decision continued in the Supreme Administrative Court and the European Commission, to which Sydkraft had reported the matter for contravening EU competition laws. Sydkraft and the government were unable to reach agreement during 1998.

On 16 June 1999, the verdict of the Supreme Administrative Court was announced, enabling the government to close a reactor at Barsebäck at the end of November that year. In the autumn, negotiations to achieve a voluntary solution were resumed, with the participation of the State, Sydkraft and Vattenfall.

On 30 November 1999, a settlement was reached - the framework agreement - in respect to Barsebäck. The settlement applies to both reactors at Barsebäck and entails Sydkraft receiving compensation of an equivalent volume of power generated by the Ringhals nuclear power plant, at the same cost and environmental impact, as well as Vattenfall being financially compensated by the state for the power generation it relinquishes. Barsebäck 1 was closed on 30 November 1999.

The closure of this nuclear power plant will have a substantial impact on the environment. Barsebäck's output of approximately 4 TW h per year will primarily be replaced by imports from coal-fired plants in Denmark and Germany . In doing so, emissions of carbon dioxide in Sweden 's surroundings will increase, corresponding to more than a doubling of the Swedish electricity sector's emissions of carbon dioxide. Besides sharply increased carbon dioxide emissions, the fallout in Southern Sweden of acidifying substances, such as sulphur and nitrogen, will also increase.

In 2005 Barsebäck 2 was also permanently closed. Due to the programme of power uprates at the reminding nuclear power plants the negative emission consequences will be reduced.

The original concessions to construct and operate the twelve nuclear units were all given by the government without any time limit. The previous Nuclear Act stipulates that a nuclear power unit shall be closed if and when safety standards are evaluated to not be high enough or if the waste development programme is judged not to be appropriate. The evaluation must be made by the safety authorities and a decision by the government to close a unit only for political reasons was not enough according to the previous Nuclear Act.

The mixed ownership of nuclear power has been accepted from the construction of the first nuclear units. Today Vattenfall, a state-owned company, owns about half of the nuclear capacity. The other half of the nuclear installations are either private or municipality-owned utilities. Some of these are registered on the Stockholm Exchange and some of the shares are owned by foreign utilities.

Since 1988, all nuclear power units have had filtered vented containments fitted. The efficiency of the filters has to be so high that there would be no need for permanent evacuation in the neighbourhood of a reactor, even in the case of a severe core accident.

In 1992, SKB presented a comprehensive programme for final disposal of spent nuclear fuel. The report describes a method and a preferred alternative for encapsulation and final disposal in a deep repository. University experts and specialist companies as well as the regulatory authorities SKI and SSI thoroughly scrutinised and analysed the plans presented in the report. The plans were then accepted by the government in December 1993 as a basis for SKB's future work in the field.

The deep repository is intended to be built on a site where the prospects for safety are very good. Many sites in Sweden are deemed to be capable of conforming to the high standards required. For this reason, the interest displayed by a municipality to host a deep repository, as well as the municipality's industrial infrastructure, also played an important role for the choice of site.

During 1994, SKB conducted feasibility studies as an initial step in the siting of the deep repository. Two studies, both at municipalities in the far north of Sweden , have been completed. The result is that both sites probably fulfil the technical criteria for the building of a deep repository.

However, in order to obtain a broader body of data, SKB have continued to conduct feasibility studies at other sites as well.

After the evaluation of the feasibility studies and completion of supplementary studies, site investigations with surface and borehole studies are planned to be conducted on at list two additional sites.

If the results are good, SKB intends to proceed on one of the sites with detailed characterisation of tunnels to obtain the necessary supporting material for an application for a licence to build the deep repository.

To start with, the deep repository will only be put into operation for deposition of a small quantity of spent fuel. Approximately 5-10% of the fuel will be deposited in this initial phase, starting in 2008 at the earliest. After an evaluation and a renewed licensing round, the repository will be expanded to full scale.

All the costs for managing and disposing of Sweden 's nuclear waste shall be paid by the owners of the nuclear power plants. This also applies to the costs of decommissioning the nuclear power plants and disposing of the decommissioned waste.

To ensure that adequate funds will be available in the future, a special charge is levied on nuclear power production. It is paid to the Nuclear Power Inspectorate, SKI, and is deposited in interest-bearing accounts in the Bank of Sweden.

Vattenfall AB is a state-owned limited company. The government can influence the operation of the company through the chairman of the board, who is elected by the government. Matters concerning Vattenfall AB are handled by the Ministry of Industry and Commerce.

Sydkraft and all other utilities Vattenfall excluded, are owned by municipalities, large industrial concerns, institutional investors or other types of shareholders. Table 2 shows the ownership of the nuclear power plants.

Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (SKB), the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company and Kärnkraftsäkerhet och Utbildning AB (KSU), Nuclear Training and Safety Centre are jointly owned by the utilities and/or the nuclear power operator companies.

The Nordic Owners Group (NOG) was established in January 2000. NOG is an informal organisation of Swedish and Finnish nuclear power operators along with Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB for principal and long-term safety issues.

Statens Kärnkraftinspektion (SKI) and Statens Strålskyddsinstitut (SSI) are responsible for the implementation of the Act on Nuclear Activities and the Radiation Protection Act respectively. Both the authorities report to the Ministry for the Environment. Thus there is no co-ordination of all nuclear activities at the ministry level. Only the government as a whole or parliament takes the responsibility for such co-ordination.

Privatisation and deregulation

The electricity market is at present undergoing extensive changes in many parts of the world in terms of altered market conditions, new technology and greater environmental awareness. One of the effects of the EU Electricity Market Directive is that at least 25% of electricity markets in the EU states must be open for competition. The degree of openness varies between states. The electricity Swedish markets is fully open to competition.

Restructuring of the electricity markets involves a change from national monopolies, with central planning, to markets exposed to competition. Electricity becomes a form of energy raw material, which can be traded and supplied across borders. Company takeovers in the electricity markets in the Nordic countries have attracted considerable attention in recent years.

Strategic investments are being made by the largest Nordic power utilities, not only in the Nordic countries but in the rest of Europe, while non-Nordic companies, such as the German PreussenElektra and the French Electricité de France are investing in the Nordic countries.

The import and export of electricity have previously been clear concepts that have been defined on a national perspective. However, as the larger companies increasingly extend their activities across national borders, it becomes less relevant to talk of national electricity markets. Large companies are buying and selling electricity in many other countries besides their original homelands. Development will be towards a common market, with electricity being produced wherever it is physically and economically most appropriate.

Nuclear Energy Data
Nuclear Energy Data is the NEA’s annual compilation of essential statistics on electricity generation and nuclear power in OECD countries. The reader will have quick and easy reference to the status of and projected trends in total electricity generating capacity, nuclear generating capacity, and actual electricity production, as well as to supply and demand for nuclear fuel cycle services.

This is an edited extract from the IAEA Country Nuclear Power Profile of Sweden, compiled in 2003. The complete entry is available from the IAEA.