Korea

Nuclear power situation

• Nuclear power plants: Status and operations
• Current organisational chart
• Supply of nuclear power plants
• Operation of nuclear power plants
• Fuel cycle and waste management
• Research and development activities
• International co-operation and initiatives
• Human resources development
• Historical development and current nuclear power organisational structure

National laws and regulations

• Safety authority and the licensing process
• Main national laws and the regulations governing nuclear power

Current issues and developments

• Energy policy
• Privatisation and deregulation
• Nuclear energy and climate change
• Nuclear safety
• Nuclear waste management issues
• Related links
• Related NEA publications

Nuclear power situation

	Number of nuclear units connected to the grid	Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh)	Nuclear percentage of total electricity supply
Korea	20	136.3	35.2
OECD Pacific	75	387.9	25.8
OECD TOTAL	346 (out of 437 worldwide)	2278.1	23.1

Source: Nuclear Energy Data 2008. The complete table for all OECD member countries is also available.

 

Nuclear power plants: Status and operations

Since the beginning of commercial operation at the Kori unit 1 in 1978, nuclear power has been an important source of energy in Korea. In spite of the slowdown of the nuclear energy industry in the U.S. and Europe, the Korean government has been steadily promoting the nuclear power generation business in response to Korea's increasing electricity demand, seeking new sites for nuclear power plants and supporting the development of commercial technology.

As of December 2005, a total of nineteen nuclear power units are in operation, and eight units are under construction or planning as shown in Table 1. Korea has more than 15 GW of nuclear power capacity, which accounts for 29.2% of its total electric power capacity. The volume of nuclear power generation in 2002 was around 119 TWh, accounting for 38.9% of total power generation. Korea also has a high capacity factor for its nuclear units, which was 90.4% in 2000, 92.7% in 2002 as shown in Table 2.

Table 1. Status of Nuclear Power Plants

Station	Type	Capacity MWe	Operator	Reactor Supplier	Construction Start	First Criticality	Grid Connection	Commercial Operation	Shutdown Date
KORI-1	PWR	587	KHNP	Westinghouse	1971 November	1977 June	1977 June	1978 April
KORI-2	PWR	650	KHNP	Westinghouse	1977 March	1983 April	1983 April	1983 July
KORI-3	PWR	950	KHNP	Westinghouse	1979 April	1985 January	1985 January	1985 September
KORI-4	PWR	950	KHNP	Westinghouse	1979 April	1985 October	1985 December	1986 April
SHIN KORI-1	PWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC	-	-	-	(2008 September)
SHIN KORI-2	PWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC	-	-	-	(2009 September)
SHIN KORI-3	PWR	1000	KHNP	-	-	-	-	(2010 September)
SHIN KORI-4	PWR	1000	KHNP	-	-	-	-	(2011 September)
YONGGWANG-1	PWR	950	KHNP	Westinghouse	1980 December	1986 January	1986 March	1986 August
YONGGWANG-2	PWR	950	KHNP	Westinghouse	1980 December	1986 October	1986 November	1987 June
YONGGWANG-3	PWR	1000	KHNP	KHI/KAERI	1989 June	1994 October	1994 October	1995 March
YONGGWANG-4	PWR	1000	KHNP	KHI/KAERI	1989 June	1995 July	1995 July	1996 January
YONGGWANG-5	PWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC/KOPEC	1996 September	2001 November	2001 December	2002 May
YONGGWANG-6	PWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC/KOPEC	1996 September	2002 September	2002 September	2002 December
WOLSONG-1	PHWR	679	KHNP	AECL	1977 May	1982 November	1982 December	1983 April
WOLSONG-2	PHWR	700	KHNP	AECL/KHI	1991 October	1997 January	1997 April	1997 July
WOLSONG-3	PHWR	700	KHNP	KHI/AECL	1993 August	1998 February	1998 March	1998 July
WOLSONG-4	PHWR	700	KHNP	KHI/AECL	1993 August	1999 April	1999 May	1999 October
SHIN WOLSONG-1	PHWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC	-	-	-	(2009 September)
SHIN WOLSONG-2	PHWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC	-	-	-	(2010 September)
ULCHIN-1	PWR	950	KHNP	Framatom	1982 March	1988 February	1988 April	1988 September
ULCHIN-2	PWR	950	KHNP	Framatom	1982 March	1989 February	1989 April	1989 September
ULCHIN-3	PWR	1000	KHNP	KHI/KAERI	1992 May	1997 December	1998 January	1998 August
ULCHIN-4	PWR	1000	KHNP	KHI/KAERI	1992 May	1998 December	1998 December	1999 December
ULCHIN-5	PWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC/KOPEC	1999 January	2003 November	2003 December	2004 July
ULCHIN-6	PWR	1000	KHNP	DHIC/KOPEC	1999 January	2004 December	2004 December	2005 April

( ) estimated commercial operation date

Source: KHNP Annual Report 2002

Table 2. The Average Capacity Factor of Korean Nuclear Power Plants

	1980	1985	1990	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2002
Capacity factor	67.4	78.7	79.3	87.3	87.5	87.6	90.2	88.2	90.4	92.7

Source: Country Information

According to "The Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand", which was finalised by MOCIE in August 2002, ten new nuclear power units will be constructed by 2015, including the eight units that are currently under construction or planned. The share of nuclear power capacity and nuclear power generation will be increased to 34.6% and 46.1%, respectively by 2015 as shown in Figure 1.

To enhance the safety and economy of nuclear power plants, KHNP has been developing an advanced power reactor with a capacity of 1 400MWe, called APR1400 since 1995, on the basis of the technological self-reliance of KSNP.

The APR1400 is an improved version of a light water reactor. It is expected to be ten times safer than the KSNP. In terms of economic benefits, it will be more competitive than any existing nuclear power units or thermal plants. The APR1400 standard design was certified through a stringent safety review by the Korean regulatory agency in May 2002 and appraised as the new design concept with enhanced safety and economical competitiveness. Shin-Kori Units 3 and 4 will be the first APR1400 plants and will be constructed at a site adjacent to the present Kori nuclear power station. They are scheduled to start commercial operation in September 2010 and 2011 respectively.

Current organisational chart

In Korea, nuclear-related activities are planned and carried out by various organisations, such as: the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC); the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC); the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST); and the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy (MOCIE).

Under the Atomic Energy Act, AEC is the highest decision-making body on policy issues and the utilisation of nuclear energy. The AEC is composed of nine to eleven members representing various sectors of the government, academia and industry. The chairman of the AEC is the Prime Minister.

The MOST has the overall responsibility for the nation's nuclear research and development, regulatory and licensing works. In order to deal with important issues in nuclear safety, the NSC was established under the MOST in December 1996. The NSC consists of seven to nine members, including the Minister of Science and Technology who chairs the NSC.

The MOCIE is responsible for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel supply, and the management of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste.

Figure 2. Main Nuclear-Related Organisations in Korea

Supply of nuclear power plants

In 1985, the Korean government decided to implement the national self-reliance policy and allocated the roles and duties among domestic nuclear organisations to streamline the nuclear power industry.

- Total Project Management	KHNP
- Architectural Engineering and NSSS Design	KOPEC
- Research & Development	KAERI
- Maintenance Services	KPS
- NSSS, Turbine and Generator Manufacturing	DOOSAN (formerly HANJUNG)
- Nuclear Fuel Design and Fabrication	KNFC

DOOSAN assumed responsibility for plant manufacturing by virtue of its capability to supply heavy industrial construction equipment and machinery. KOPEC was established in 1975 to foster the nation's self-reliance in power technologies, particularly in nuclear power engineering for pressurised water reactors. KOPEC has taken on the prime architect/engineer's responsibility in the Korean nuclear power industry. KPS was given the responsibility to provide maintenance services for all the operating nuclear power plants and five individual companies including DOOSAN provide maintenance services for the Ulchin 5 reactor, with the Ulchin 6 plant currently under start-up. KNFC was established in November 1982 by the joint investment of KEPCO and KAERI to localise the nuclear fuel fabrication for pressurised water reactors and CANDU reactors.

The self-reliance strategy has been applied since construction of the Yonggwang 3 and 4 projects. Domestic nuclear industries became the project's prime contractors on the condition of technological support and transfer from foreign subcontractors.

Operation of nuclear power plants

KEPCO is the sole electricity generator in Korea. KEPCO's generation sector has been split up into five non-nuclear GENCOs and one hydro-nuclear GENCO, namely KHNP. KHNP is the sole entity in Korea responsible for the long-term planning, development and generation of nuclear and hydro power. It has implemented a comprehensive programme for improving the performance of nuclear power plants, with the goal of achieving best practice standards.

Fuel cycle and waste management

Korea's demand for uranium and nuclear fuel cycle service has continuously increased with the expansion of its nuclear power capacity. The demand is projected to account for more than 5% of the world's demand from the year 2000 onwards. Korea imports uranium concentrates from Australia, Canada, the U.K, France, Russia, the U.S. and South Africa. In 2002, Korea imported a total of 6 million pounds of uranium.

KHNP, as the sole consumer of nuclear fuel in Korea, has basic guidelines to ensure the stable supply of nuclear fuel and to pursue economic efficiency at the same time by purchasing through international open bids. For Uranium concentrates, KHNP has tried to maintain the optimal contract conditions, through both long-term contracts and spot-market purchases. Conversion and enrichment services come from the U.S., the U.K., France, Canada, and Russia via long-term contracts. Fuel fabrication services are fully localised to meet domestic needs.

The KHNP Radioactive waste Disposal Facility Project was established as the responsible organisation for the management of low-level radioactive waste and spent fuels in Korea. In order to carry out its radioactive waste management programme more successfully, the government promulgated a law that provides support to local communities and inhabitants neighbouring facilities, to improve their standard of living.

KHNP established the plan to build an Away From Reactor Interim Storage Facility for spent fuel and a permanent disposal facility for the low and intermediate level radioactive waste under the government's auspices.

The plan was approved by the Atomic Energy Commission in September 1998. According to the plan, a low-and intermediate-level radioactive waste (LILW) repository will be constructed by 2008 and spent fuels will be stored at each nuclear power plant site until interim storage facilities are constructed by 2016.

For additional information on the Korean radioactive waste management programme please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries.

Research and development

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Minister of Science and Technology shall formulate the National Nuclear Research and Development Programme according to the sector-by-sector implementation plan.

The Nuclear Research and Development Programme, otherwise called the "National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Programme", is being implemented mainly by KAERI, KCCH (Korea Cancer Center Hospital) and KINS. This is in addition to industry-led research and development programmes implemented by KHNP, KOPEC, KPS and KNFC etc.

Originally, the "National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Programme" was launched in June 1992 as a 10-year (1992-2001) programme. It was modified into a new research and development programme for the 1997-2006 term, to take into account the major changes in national and international situations. The programme is funded by both the government and the nuclear industry.

The research and development programme is focused on five research fields:

• Advanced reactor & fuel;
• Nuclear safety;
• Radioactive waste management;
• Application of radiation and radioisotopes; and
• Fundamental technologies.

A couple of projects for the development of advanced reactors and fuel cycle technology are in progress under the mid-and long-term nuclear research and development programme. In terms of short term reactor development, the KNGR (Korea Next Generation Reactor, APR1400) and the SMART (System-integrated Modular Advanced Reactor) are under development. In terms of mid-and long-term reactor options, KALIMER (Korea Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor) for power generation and a number of other advanced reactors (including the Generation IV programme), are also under development.

Korea has a "wait and see policy" regarding spent fuel management, however several alternative studies on spent fuel management have been carried over several years. The DUPIC programme is one of the prominent approaches among the KAERI reseach and development activities. Also active reseach and development activities on the treatment of radioactive wastes from the nuclear fuel cycle, as well as the decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities are in progress.

Several research projects on the application of radiation and radioisotopes, including the production of radioisotopes, are being conducted for various areas such as: medicine, agriculture, food, and industry.

Role of the government in the nuclear research and development

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Minister of Science and Technology shall formulate the National Atomic Energy Research and Development Programme according to the sector-by-sector implementation plan as outlined in section 3.B of the Act. The Atomic Energy Research and Development Programme, the "National Mid-and Long-term Atomic Energy R&D Programme", is being implemented mainly by KAERI, KCCH and KINS.

Originally, the "National Mid-and Long-term Atomic Energy R&D Programme" was launched in June 1992 as a 10 year (1992-2001) programme. It was modified into a new research and development programme to be implemented for the 1997-2006 period, to take into account the major changes in both the national and international situation. 28 major projects are being carried out currently and are funded by both the government budget and the Atomic Energy Research and Development Endowment fund.

In 2001, KRW 167.3 billion (Korean wons) were funded to research and development programmes, the funds were raised through the government budget (KRW 30 billion), the Atomic Energy Research and Development Endowment Fund (KRW 123.4 billion), and the balance carried over from previous years (KRW 13.9 billion).

The "Intermediate and Long term R&D Programme " covers 6 fields, as follows:

• Nuclear reactor and nuclear fuel;
• Nuclear safety;
• Radioactive waste management;
• Radiation/radioisotopes application and radiation protection;
• Current issues related to the NPP; and
• Basic technology.

The Research and Development fund distribution by each sector is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Research and Development Fund Distribution by Sector (2001)

International co-operation and initiatives

Until recently, Korea's science and technology co-operation with foreign partners largely took the form of technological imports or assistance of a reciprocal nature. There were few joint research and development projects that benefited both participants. Furthermore, partnerships were limited to such advanced countries as the United States, Japan, and several European countries.

Korea has accomplished considerable science and technology development through international co-operation. Now, as a newly industrialised country, Korea recognises the need for a new approach to international co-operation. Korea is seeking a more active role in the international science and technology community, not only to contribute to scientific advancement but also to harness new knowledge for the nation's social and economic development. To this end, it is actively pursuing both bilateral and multilateral co-operation.

Bilateral co-operation

As of October 2002, the Korean government has concluded 18 bilateral agreements on co-operation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy with the governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, the Czech Republic, Egypt, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, Spain, Turkey, the UK, Ukraine, the USA, and Vietnam.

Korea also engages in talks on bilateral agreements with developing countries which have programmes for the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Through the conclusion of such agreements, technology transfers and the safety of nuclear installations can be facilitated.

In general, bilateral co-operation with foreign countries is based on an inter-governmental science and technology co-operation agreements. The joint research projects agreed on at bilateral meetings have been implemented mainly through international joint research programmes. Although the United States, Japan and some European countries have been major partners, bilateral co-operation with Eastern European Countries (EEC) has increased in recent years.

- United States of America

Following the conclusion of the Korea-U.S. Agreement on S&T cooperation in 1976, a wide range of joint research projects as well as exchanges of scientists and engineers have been carried out. The agreement, amended in 1993 and 1999, prescribes the allocation of intellectual property rights (IPR's) and strengthens its protection through mutual co-operation. In accordance with that agreement, the Korea-U.S. Joint Committee on S&T has met every two years since 1993 and has conducted a joint review of co-operative activities in order to keep pace with the rapid advances in science and technology. The Korea-U.S. Special Co-operative Program in S&T has also been used to promote the exchange of scientists and engineers since 1995. The Korea-U.S. S&T Co-operation Forum, held every year since 1993, is expected to expedite joint co-operation in fields of mutual interests. The Korean government carries out S&T co-operation with state governments as well as the federal government.

- United Kingdom

Korea-United Kingdom science and technology co-operation has been fostered by the Korea-United Kingdom S&T Co-operation Agreement of 1985. The annual Korea-U.K. Round Table Meeting on science and technology co-operation, contributes to the promotion of science and technology co-operation and has been held since 1996. They have greatly contributed to the promotion of science and technology co-operation. As a result of these meetings, the Korea-U.K. Joint Research Fund Programme, the KIMM-Rolls Royce Collaborative Research Project, and the S&T Joint Scholarship Programme have been set up and are being actively carried out.

- Japan

Since the Korea-Japan S&T Co-operation Agreement was signed in 1985, the Korea-Japan Committee on S&T Co-operation, made up of officials from both governments, has held meetings once a year. Through this committee, a wide range of joint research projects as well as exchanges of scientists and engineers have been carried out. Korea and Japan Science and Technology Forums were held in October 1999 and November 2000 and this laid the groundwork for active joint research projects. The Korea-Japan Joint Committee for Basic Scientific Research, which has held annual meetings since 1991, has played a pivotal role in promoting bilateral co-operation in basic science. In addition, province-to-province co-operative programmes between the two countries, which started in 1995, are being actively developed.

- China

Scientific and technological co-operation with China has been carried out under the provision of the Korea-China S&T Co-operation Agreement which was signed in 1992. A variety of co-operative activities such as the exchange of technology survey teams, post-doctoral training programmes, joint research projects and others have been undertaken. Science and technology exchanges between the two nations is active and continuously expanding into new areas. The MOST will work closely with China not only to strengthen bilateral science and techonolgy co-operation, but also to advance regional development.

- Germany

Science and technology co-operation with Germany was launched with the signing of the Korea-Germany S&T Co-operation Agreement in 1986. It has promoted the co-operative activities in high-tech fields such as new materials, laser technology, and automation. In recognition of the necessity to strengthen co-operation between the private sectors of the two countries, Korea and Germany established the Korea-German Non-Governmental Committee on Science and Technology in 1997. The Committee has met three times in Korea and Germany and made a large contribution to promoting collaborative activities between the two countries. To strengthen the co-operation between the two countries, a Korea-Germany Non-Governmental S&T Forum is currently being considered. Experts from various areas of science and technology will participate in this forum to exchange information and discuss specific co-operative mechanisms.

- Russia

Since Korea and Russia laid the foundation for bilateral science and technology co-operation with the signing the Korea-Russia S&T Cooperation Agreement in December 1990, science and technology co-operation between the two countries has been actively promoted through the exchange of scientists and joint research projects. The establishment and increase in numbers of joint research centers in such areas as aerospace, material, energy, and optics has greatly increased bilateral co-operation. These co-operative activities have been reviewed by the Korea-Russia Joint Committee on S&T Co-operation and have encouraged contacts between scientists and specialists of the two countries. The two countries will seek further mutually beneficial activities such as the exhibition of Russian advanced optic technologies,research and development management and business training programmes for Russian scientists.

Multilateral co-operation

- APEC

As a founding member, the Korean government has actively participated in APEC's Economic and Technical Cooperation (ECOTECH) activities, including co-operation in industrial science and technology, marine resources, and the development of human resources. In 1996, Korea hosted the APEC Ministers Conference on Regional Science and Technology Cooperation, with the main theme of "Creativity and Mobility: Researchers Across APEC". At the conference, APEC ministers discussed ways to enhance the mobility and creativity of scientists and engineers in the region.

As a follow-up, Korea hosted the first APEC Youth Science Festival in Seoul in August 1998. It was attended by more than 460 students and 170 teachers from twelve member economies. The festival served as an excellent opportunity for the young students from the APEC economies to share scientific ideas and to develop friendships. The MOST is currently implementing four Korea-initiated projects to promote the exchange of researchers and science and technology information.

- OECD

Korea joined the OECD at the end of 1996. Prior to this, Korea had joined the NEA in 1993, the OECD Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy (CSTP) in 1994 and had actively participated in its sub-committee and working group activities. Korea hosted the 1997 OECD Seoul Conference on International Technology Co-operation under the theme of "Facilitating International Technology Co-operation in a Knowledge-based Economy" and the "International Scientific and Technological Co-operation for Sustainable Development" in 2000.

Korea is also leading a research group on the "National Innovation Systems in Catching-up Economies", and Korea took part in the 10th Ministerial Meeting of CSTP in June 1999, making a keynote speech on the theme of "Benefiting from Globalisation."

- ISTC

In November 1997, the Governing Board of International Science and Technology Center (ISTC) approved Korea's request to be a party to the ISTC Agreement. Korea joined ISTC in May 1998. In accordance with the terms of the agreement and other regulations, Korea has taken part in international efforts to support the research projects of weapons scientists and engineers in the Russian Federation for peaceful purposes.

Korea has actively participated in all the activities of the ISTC, including the support of research projects and the sharing of the ISTC administrative budget. Korea has maintained close and co-operative ties with all ISTC members, including the USA, Japan, the EU, the Russian Federation and Norway to promote the goals of the ISTC. The government has also supported ISTC Secretariats through the provision of a staff member, appointed as a Senior Project Manager.

- EU

Korea and the EU have maintained a close relationship since the conclusion of the Arrangement on S&T Co-operation in 1992. Four science and technology joint seminars have been held since then, and scientists and students participated in exchange programmes between the the EU and Korea. In addition, since 1996 Korea has stationed an official in the Joint Research Center (JRC) to get first-hand experience on the EU's advanced science and technology system and to identify ways to enhance co-operation.

Human resources development

Basic research in Korea

In Korea78% of PhD researchers work in universities. Yet the research conditions in universities are not optimal due to a lack of funds, research equipment, and other facilities. Faculties also suffer from teaching overloads, another reason for the low research and development performance. In 2001, only 10.4% of national research and development expenditures were allocated to universities, whereas the figure for GRIs was 13.4%, and for industry 76.2%. The government planned to increase basic research expenditure in research and development up to 20% by 2002. The government's support for basic research is funded mainly by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) and the Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development (MOE) via their respective agencies: the Korean Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) and the Korea Research Foundation (KRF).

Centres of excellence

There are major Centres of Excellence (COE) in Korea, namely: Science Research Centres (SRCs), Engineering Research Centres (ERCs), and Regional Research Centres (RRCs). These COEs established to implement programmes that encourage basic research in major universities. The SRCs and ERCs, both founded in May 1989, focus on creative and innovative research in basic sciences and new technologies, while the RRCs, founded in 1995, emphasise co-operative research between regional universities and industries. The SRCs and ERCs were selected on the basis of creativity and research capability. In the selection of RRCs, both research capability and contribution to the regional economy and community are important factors. Once the centres are selected, they receive government funding for nine years provided that an interim evaluation completed every three years shows good progress. So far, 36 SRCs, 47 ERCs and 37 RRCs have been selected and funded.

Research and development equipment, materials, and information

Building up research infrastructure is another way to improve basic research in science and engineering. The Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) fully supports various universities in boosting their research capabilities. Its programmes include strengthening the academic research environment and enhancing the efficiency of research investment. It optimises the use of university research resources such as equipment, materials, and information. Three major programmes are currently underway. These programmes support university research groups managing the following:

• Costly research equipment;
• A special research materials bank; and
• A specialised research information center.

The cost of operating scientific equipment and special research materials are provided to individual laboratories to promote collaborative studies. Through the specialised research information centers, researchers can access various research data maintained by centers. This ensures optimum exploitation of research experience by rationally gathering information. Three programmes are being carried out by the Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI) and KOSEF.

World-class institutes

In 1996, Korea established the Korea Institute for Advanced Study (KIAS) as a world-class institute with a strong commitment towards excellent research in basic sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology). The main objectives of KIAS include the training of young scientists to advance the knowledge of basic sciences and the promotion of sciences and technology in Korea to a world-class standard. KIAS aims to achieve this mission through high-quality research programmes with strong faculty members composed of distinguished scientists and visiting scholars. In 1999, KIAS had over 180 visiting scholars from home and abroad, and organised numerous international conferences, symposia, and workshops, in which several world-renowned scientists participated. The Asia-Pacific Center for Theoretical Physics (APCTP) was placed in Korea in 1997. The establishment of APCTP in Korea is expected to make the Korean physics community one of the international hubs of theoretical physics research, providing young scientists with excellent training opportunities within their reach, hastening their contact with the latest information and developments in basic sciences. Both KIAS and APCTP are giving Asia-Pacific scientists an opportunity to work together and advance the regional level of basic science.

High-calibre human resources

The prerequisite for meeting the growing demand for research and development is to secure highly competent research human resources. Thus, the government is making an effort to transform graduate programmes at Korean universities into ones that are more research-oriented. It has provided financial support to universities selectively on the basis of their research performances. Science and engineering universities are training and producing 99% of the science and technology human resources in Korea. The number of graduates in 2000 receiving BS degrees, MS degrees, and Ph.D degrees was 258 126, 64 259 and 7 240 respectively, for a total of 329 625, which was an increase by 6.2% from 1999.

Research-oriented institutes

The Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) is a research-oriented science and engineering university established in 1971. Since its founding, KAIST has been funded by the government, and its industrial funding continues to increase. By 2003, KAIST is expected to produce 26 707 graduates. This number represents 6 526 for BS degrees, 14 801 for MS degrees, and 5 380 for Ph.D degrees. As a new challenge for KAIST, the government has given it the task of raising the level of research and education capabilities to that of the world's top 10 in the 21st century. KAIST is located in Daedok Science Town and enjoys the advantage of being involved in many co-operative programmes with nearby research institutes. The Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (K-JIST) opened in March 1995 as a graduate school. The institute has integrated graduate education with mission-oriented research in highly advanced technological fields such as information and communications, new materials, mechatronics, environment, and life sciences. All the lectures at the institute are given in English so that students of other countries may attend. From 1997 to 2000, K-JIST produced 654 MS graduate students and six Ph.D. students, for a total of 660 graduate students. With a strong vision on the role of science and technology in stimulating future economic growth in the Gwangju area, K-JIST is in the forefront of developing co-operation in research and development between industry and academia. K-JIST plays a key role in both education and research and development in the optical communications industry sector, which is an emerging field, that is the focus of intense research by the local government for future investment and development potential.

Science and technology education

To provide better education for gifted and talented school children, the MOST introduced in 1998 to 2000 special programmes at 15 universities nationwide consisting of programmes covering the four basic sciences and information science. These special programmes target to educate about 2 200 students in a year. In addition, KAIST provides a distance-learning program that educates about 1 300 children every year. To promote the science awareness of youth, the MOST gives financial support for their participation in international science Olympiads, as well funding support to host them. The International Mathematics Olympiad 2000 (IMO 2000) was held in Daejon, and around 500 students from 82 countries participated. Korea held the International Olympiad in Informatics 2002 (IOI 2002), and plans to participate in five international scientific Olympiads every year.

Historical development and current nuclear power organisational structure

Overview

Nuclear activities in Korea were initiated in 1957 when Korea became a member of IAEA. In 1959, the Office of Atomic Energy was established as a government organisation in conformity with the global trend toward developing peaceful uses of atomic energy. The Atomic Energy Law was promulgated in the preceding year.

The Republic of Korea has carried out a very ambitious nuclear power programme since the 1970s in parallel with the nation's industrialisation policy. The nation has maintained a strong commitment to nuclear power development as an integral part of national energy policy, which aims at reducing external vulnerability and insuring against global fossil fuel shortages. Currently, Korea has one of the most dynamic nuclear power programmes in the world.

During the early years of nuclear power development, power plants were constructed mostly through "turn-key" contracts, providing little opportunity for domestic industries to participate. Since then however, domestic participation in the overall civil construction, management, design, and equipment supply has continuously increased through the adoption of the "non turn-key" approach. A high degree of technological self-reliance has been achieved through the construction of the Yonggwang Nuclear Units (YGN) 3 and 4 in various fields of the nuclear industry. At present, nuclear power plant technology and related fuel cycle technologies are maturing.

The first domestic reactors were the 1 000 MW(e) PWRs Ulchin units 3 and 4 (known as the Korea Standard Nuclear Power Plant(KSNP)), which entered commercial operation in 1998. The Ulchin units 3 and 4 became the reference plant for KSNP plants thereafter. Six more of KSNP plants are being currently built at Ulchin, Shin-Kori and Shin-Wolsong as shown in Table 1.

National laws and regulations

For additional information on national laws and regulations concerning nuclear power please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Analytical Study of Nuclear Legislation in OECD countries.

Safety authority and the licensing process

Safety authority

Nuclear regulatory organisations are mainly composed of the Ministery of Science and Technology (MOST) as a regulatory authority, the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) as an technical expert body. The NSC's function is to deliberate and decide on important issues related to nuclear safety. The NSC is independent of the Atomic Energy Commission (which deliberates on governmental policy concerning the peaceful use of nuclear energy).

The MOST has the overall responsibility for ensuring the protection of public health and safety through regulatory control and safety inspections, based on the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act, as amended. The KINS is responsible for assisting the government in its licensing and regulating activities, with particular attention to the protection of public health and the environment and conducts safety inspections on all nuclear facilities.

Licensing procedures

According to the Atomic Energy Act (as amended) regulation and licensing procedures for nuclear power plants in Korea are divided into three stages:

• In the site selection stage;
• For the construction permit;
• When the utility requests an operating license (the MOST must confirm that the built plant conforms to the submitted design).

Main national laws and regulations in nuclear power

• 1958 Atomic Energy Act and implementing texts and its 1994, 1996, and 1999 amendements;
• 1969 Nuclear Compensation Act, as last amended in 2001;
• 1971 Regulations on the Nuclear Installation Licensing System;
• 2004 Act on Physical Protection and Radiological Emergency.

Current issues and developments

Energy policy

Long-term nuclear energy policy towards the year 2030

In order to realise the goal of the Atomic Energy Act, the Atomic Energy Commission completed the "Direction to Long-term Nuclear Energy Policy Towards the Year 2030" in July 1994. The Direction emphasises the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy under a spirit of pursuing a better life in harmony with nature. It describes four primary objectives contributing to the economic, technological development and ultimately improvement of human welfare:

1. To enhance the stability in energy supply by promoting nuclear energy as a major energy source of domestic electricity generation;
2. To achieve self-reliance in a nuclear reactor and proliferation-resistant nuclear fuel cycle technology through comprehensive and systematic nuclear energy research and development;
3. To foster nuclear energy as a strategic export industry by securing international competitiveness through the advancement of nuclear technology, on the basis of active participation and initiatives of the civil sector; and
4. To play a leading role in the improvement of human welfare and the advancement of science and technology by expanding the use of nuclear technology in agriculture, engineering, medicine, and industry and by enacting basic nuclear technology research.

For the effective achievement of these four objectives, 10 basic directions of a long-term nuclear energy policy were established. These are:

• To continue expanding the development and utilisation of nuclear energy in the future, unless an epoch-making alternative energy source becomes available in the forseeable future;
• To develop and utilise nuclear energy for peaceful purposes only and to consistently uphold this policy;
• To further strengthen the efforts to improve nuclear safety, recognising the fact that securing nuclear safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilisation of nuclear energy;
• To improve the economy and to strengthen the international competitiveness of domestic industries through the advancement of nuclear technology;
• To increase the public's understanding of and support for nuclear energy while respecting the public's right to know under the ideals of democracy and openness;
• To implement the nuclear energy policy in such a way as to promote a balanced development of the entire spectrum of both nuclear industries and technologies;
• To promote creative research and development activities so that nuclear energy can play a leading role in demonstrating the possibilities of technological innovation and to challenge new areas of science and technology, as an integral part of the national science and technology policies;
• To conduct nuclear research and development activities in collaboration with industries, universities and research institutes by rational division of the responsibilities between the governmental and the non-governmental sectors, in view of the specialisation, complexity, and the immensity of nuclear research;
• To implement the nuclear energy policy on the basis of international understanding and co-operation in order to keep up with international harmonisation; and
• To consistently implement the nuclear energy policy on the basis of long-term perspectives on the techno-economic and socio-political environment.

Comprehensive nuclear energy promotion plan

In order to achieve the objectives of the long-term nuclear energy policy, the government established a legal basis to formulate the "Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP)" every five years through the amendment to the Atomic Energy Act in January 1995. The CNEPP includes long-term nuclear policy objectives and basic directions, sector-by-sector objectives, and a budget and investment plan.

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Minister of Science and Technology and the heads of the concerned Ministries shall formulate sector-by-sector implementation plans for those areas under their jurisdiction every five years in accordance with the CPPNE, and shall establish and implement annual action plans according to the sector-by-sector implementation plans.

The 1st CNEPP was formulated in June 1997. In July 2001, the Korean government formulated the second CNEPP which included an implementation plan for the five years from 2002 to 2006, and a direction for nuclear energy ploicy towards the year of 2015. The 10 promotion areas of the CNEPP are as follows;

1. Nuclear electricity generation and reactor development;
2. The nuclear fuel cycle;
3. Utilisation of radiation and radioisotopes;
4. Fostering and promotion of the nuclear industry;
5. Enhancement of public understanding and site acquisition;
6. Nuclear safety and radiation protection;
7. Radioactive waste management;
8. Basic and fundamental nuclear research and development;
9. Training of nuclear manpower; and
10. Nuclear diplomacy and international co-operation.

In 2002, to accelerate Radiation Technology (RT) development, Korea enacted the "Act on the Utilisation of Radiation and Radioisotopes". This act established a Radiation and Radioisotopes Research and Development Centre under the KAERI in 2005. The act also aims to secure RT research funding, to formulate related industries and to develop human resources.

Privatisation and deregulation

The deregulation of the electricity market, including the privatisation of the sector and an increasing awareness of environmental issues, create new challenges and opportunities for the different generation technologies including nuclear power.

Market liberalisation is expected to affect not only the price level of electricity power, but also the competitiveness of various power generation technologies. A liberalised market implies the possibility of business failure and capital loss for incompetent power generation companies. Power generation companies including KHNP in a liberalised market bear more business risk in return for the possibility of higher returns, using less capital-intensive technologies. This will impose additional challenges for the future of nuclear power. Nuclear power has a relatively larger burden of risk management due to its characteristics, such as: higher capital cost; longer construction time; less flexible operation conditions; higher political and technical risks related to safety; and waste disposal and decommissioning issues.

However, nuclear power plants have achieved the lowest generation cost in Korea, compared with other power sources such as coal, liquid natural gas and oil. The deregulation of the electricity market is expected to be positive for nuclear power. It is expected to provide more chances to enhance the operational performance of nuclear power plants. The potential costs related to reducing gases and other pollutant emissions by coal-fired power would also strengthen the competitiveness of nuclear power.

Nuclear energy and climate change

Korea has been implementing policies concerning energy, environmental protection and economic development through a variety of programmes. In order to formulate and implement measures to deal more efficiently with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an Inter-Ministerial Committee on the UNFCCC comprised of related government agencies, research institutions and private companies, was established in April 1998 with the Prime Minister as the head of the committee. The committee are preparing and implementing comprehensive measures to cope with the UNFCCC every three years. It is noteworthy that since 1995 the Korean government has budgeted more than KRW 5.3 trillion (US$ 6 billion) to finance various projects aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of climate change through the "Energy Project Special Account".

Since more than 97% of Korea's energy demand is met through imports, Korea's energy policy has always placed top priority on energy conservation and energy efficiency even proir to the adoption of the UNFCCC in 1992. After the Rio Conference, such efforts have been further strengthened. In addition, the use of energy sources with low carbon intensity, such as nuclear energy and liquid natural gas, is continuing to be expanded and the policy of promoting energy-related technology development is being vigorously implemented. The Korean government will promote less energy-intensive economic activities and encourage a more environmentally friendly lifestyle. Furthermore, the government will develop and commercialise innovative technology to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases, such as a next-generation nuclear reactor and fuel cells. At the same time it will promote a "Clean Energy Community" to enhance energy efficiency in the residential and commercial sectors.

Nuclear safety

In September 1994, the MOST issued the "Nuclear Safety Policy Statement" containing five regulatory principles of nuclear safety. These are: independence; openness; clarity; efficiency; and reliability.

The Nuclear Safety Policy Statement declares that securing safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilisation of nuclear energy, and that all workers engaged in nuclear activities must adhere to the principle of "priority to safety". It emphasises the importance of developing the nuclear safety culture that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has referred to.

It also prescribes that the ultimate responsibility for nuclear safety rests with the operating organisations of nuclear installations, and is in no way diluted by the separate activities and responsibilities of designers, suppliers, constructors, or regulators. Finally, it prescribes that the government shall fulfill its overall responsibility to protect the public and the environment from radiation hazards that might accompany the development and utilisation of nuclear energy.

In 1994, the government designated the 10 September as "Nuclear Safety Day". Various events highlighting nuclear safety have been conducted, through government initiatives, for the purposes of having workers engaged in nuclear-related organisations recognise the importance of nuclear safety and to solidify their commitment to nuclear safety.

In 2000, the Atomic Energy Act was amended, to strengthen nuclear safety, as follows:

• Increase the number of NSC members in order to guarantee more specialists participate in the policy decision making process;
• Introduction of the Periodic Safety Review (PSR) to ensure that the safety of operating nuclear power plants is maintained at current safety standards and practices;
• Introduction of the Standard Design Certificate to streamline the licensing process for the construction of nuclear power plants with same design; and
• Introduction of the ICRP Publication 60 on a step-by-step basis with full implementation starting in January 2003.

Nuclear waste management issues

Basic policy

Management under government auspices

Since radioactive waste needs long-term and safe management, the government takes total responsibility.

Safety first

By safe management of radioactive waste for the preservation of the environment and the ecosystem and by abiding by international regulations on the safe management of radioactive waste, any possible impact on human health and the environment is prevented.

Minimisation of radioactive waste

Korea strives to minimise radioactive wastes that result from nuclear power generation and radioisotope utilisation.

Polluter pays principle

The necessary cost for management of radioactive waste is charged to the polluter from the time the pollution was generated, this therefore avoids passing the responsibility on to the next generation.

Trust from general public

Increase public acceptance and trust through the open and honest management of radioactive waste. The project will also contribute to community development.

Project plan

Construction and operation of facility for disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes:

• Disposal capacity: initially 100 000 drums (final capacity 800 000 drums);
• Operation start year: 2008; and
• Disposal type: to determine after site selection (vault or cavern type).

Construction and operation of interim storage facility for spent fuels:

• Storage capacity: initially 2 000 tons (final capacity 20 000 tons);
• Operation start year: 2016; and
• Storage type: to be determined later considering the site condition and the technology development trend (wet or dry type).

Research and development:

• Treatment and disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes; and
• Storage and transportation of spent fuels.
  

Appendix 1 - International, Multilateral and Bilateral Agreements

Appendix 2 - Directory of the main organisations, instituions and companies involved in nuclear power-related activites

References

Related links

Nuclear facts and figures for OECD countries
Number of nuclear units connected to the grid; Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh); Nuclear percentage of total electricity supply.

IEA energy statistics: Korea
Data available in the following areas: Coal, oil and gas use; Electricity production, supply and consumption; Heat production, supply and consumption; Graphs of sectorial final consumption by source in 1973 and 2001.

The Decommissioning and Dismantling of Nuclear Facilities in OECD/NEA Member Countries: Korea
This compilation of national fact sheets is intended to serve as an authoritative source of reference information on individual NEA member countries. In this context, the term "nuclear facility" includes all facilities associated with the production of nuclear power, from mining of uranium, through fabrication of nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant operation, fuel reprocessing and waste management, including related R&D facilities, and research and demonstration reactors.

Nuclear Legislation in OECD Countries: Korea
Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear Activities
Each country profile in this valuable reference work provides a detailed review of a full range of nuclear law topics. These include: the general regulatory regime, including mining; radioactive substances and equipment; nuclear installations; trade in nuclear materials; radiation protection; radioactive waste management; non-proliferation and physical protection; transport; and nuclear third party liability.

Related NEA publications

Nuclear Energy Data
Nuclear Energy Data is the NEA’s annual compilation of essential statistics on electricity generation and nuclear power in OECD countries. The reader will have quick and easy reference to the status of and projected trends in total electricity generating capacity, nuclear generating capacity, and actual electricity production, as well as to supply and demand for nuclear fuel cycle services.

 

This is an edited extract from the IAEA Country Nuclear Power Profiles. The complete entry is available from the IAEA.