Japan

Nuclear power situation

• Nuclear power plants: Status and operations
• Current organisational chart
• Supply of nuclear power plants
• Operation of nuclear power plants
• Fuel cycle and waste management
• Research and development activities
• International co-operation and initiatives
• Human resources development
• Historical development and current nuclear power organisational structure

National laws and regulations

• Safety authority and the licensing process
• Main national laws and the regulations governing nuclear power

Current issues and developments

• Energy policy
• Privatisation and deregulation
• Nuclear safety issues
• Related links
• Related NEA publications

Nuclear power situation

	Number of nuclear units connected to the grid	Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh)	Nuclear percentage of total electricity supply
Japan	55	251.6	25.6
OECD Pacific	75	387.9	25.8
OECD TOTAL	346 (out of 439 worldwide)	2172.5	21.6

Source: Nuclear Energy Data 2008. The complete table for all OECD member countries is also available.

 

Nuclear power plants: Status and operations

 

Status of nuclear power plants

Table 1 and Figure 2 provide lists and locations of the nuclear power plants in operation, under construction and firmly planned, together with those out of service in Japan. As of the end of the fiscal year 2002, the total capacity of nuclear power generation is 45 742 MWe. The total capacity of nuclear power generation of the plants under construction and firmly planned is 3 838 MWe (for three plants) and 10 290 MWe (for eight plants) respectively.

Table 1. Status of Nuclear Power Plants

Station	Type	Capacity (Net) (MWe)	Operator	Status	Reactor Supplier	Construction Begun	Criticality Date	Grid Connection  Date	Commercial Date	Decomission Date
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-1	BWR	439	TEPCO	Operating	GE	25-Jun-67	10-Oct-70	17-Nov-70	26-Mar-71
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-2	BWR	760	TEPCO	Operating	GE/TOSHIBA	09-Jun-69	10-May-73	24-Dec-73	18-Jul-74
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-3	BWR	760	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	28-Dec-70	06-Sep-74	26-Oct-74	27-Mar-76
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-4	BWR	760	TEPCO	Operating	HITACHI	12-Feb-73	28-Jan-78	24-Feb-78	12-Oct-78
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-5	BWR	760	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	22-May-72	26-Aug-77	22-Sep-77	18-Apr-78
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-6	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	GE/TOSHIBA	26-Oct-73	09-Mar-79	04-May-79	24-Oct-79
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-1	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	16-Mar-76	17-Jun-81	31-Jul-81	20-Apr-82
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-2	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	HITACHI	25-May-79	26-Apr-83	23-Jun-83	03-Feb-84
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-3	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	23-Mar-81	18-Oct-84	14-Dec-84	21-Jun-85
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-4	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	HITACHI	28-May-81	24-Oct-86	17-Dec-86	25-Aug-87
GENKAI-1	PWR	529	KYUSHU	Operating	MHI	15-Sep-71	28-Jan-75	14-Feb-75	15-Oct-75
GENKAI-2	PWR	529	KYUSHU	Operating	MHI	01-Feb-77	21-May-80	03-Jun-80	30-Mar-81
GENKAI-3	PWR	1127	KYUSHU	Operating	MHI	01-Jun-88	28-May-93	15-Jun-93	18-Mar-94
GENKAI-4	PWR	1127	KYUSHU	Operating	MHI	15-Jul-92	23-Oct-96	12-Nov-96	25-Jul-97
HAMAOKA-1	BWR	515	CHUBU	Operating	TOSHIBA	10-Jun-71	20-Jun-74	13-Aug-74	17-Mar-76
HAMAOKA-2	BWR	806	CHUBU	Operating	TOSHIBA	14-Jun-74	28-Mar-78	04-May-78	29-Nov-78
HAMAOKA-3	BWR	1056	CHUBU	Operating	TOSHIBA	18-Apr-83	21-Nov-86	20-Jan-87	28-Aug-87
HAMAOKA-4	BWR	1092	CHUBU	Operating	TOSHIBA	13-Oct-89	02-Dec-92	27-Jan-93	03-Sep-93
IKATA-1	PWR	538	SHIKOKU	Operating	MHI	15-Jun-73	29-Jan-77	17-Feb-77	30-Sep-77
IKATA-2	PWR	538	SHIKOKU	Operating	MHI	21-Feb-78	31-Jul-81	19-Aug-81	19-Mar-82
IKATA-3	PWR	846	SHIKOKU	Operating	MHI	01-Nov-86	23-Feb-94	29-Mar-94	15-Dec-94
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-1	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	05-Jun-80	12-Dec-84	13-Feb-85	18-Sep-85
KASHIWAZAKIKARIWA-2	BR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	18-Nov-85	30-Nov-89	08-Feb-90	28-Sep-90
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-3	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA	20-Jun-85	19-Oct-92	08-Dec-92	11-Aug-93
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-4	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	HITACHI	07-Mar-89	01-Nov-93	21-Dec-93	11-Aug-94
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-5	BWR	1067	TEPCO	Operating	HITACHI	05-Mar-90	20-Jul-89	12-Sep-89	10-Apr-90
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-6	ABWR	1315	TEPCO	Operating	TOSHIBA/GE	03-Nov-92	18-Dec-95	29-Jan-96	07-Dec-96
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-7	ABWR	1315	TEPCO	Operating	HITACHI/GE	01-Jul-93	01-Nov-96	17-Dec-96	02-Jul-97
MIHAMA-1	PWR	320	KEPCO	Operating	WH	01-Feb-67	29-Jul-70	08-Aug-70	28-Nov-70
MIHAMA-2	PWR	470	KEPCO	Operating	WH/MHI	29-May-68	10-Apr-72	21-Apr-72	25-Jul-72
MIHAMA-3	PWR	780	KEPCO	Operating	MHI	07-Aug-72	28-Jan-76	19-Feb-76	01-Dec-76
MONJU	FBR	246	JNC	Under Construction	MHI	10-May-86	05-Apr-94	29-Aug-94
OHI-1	PWR	1120	KEPCO	Operating	WH	26-Oct-72	02-Dec-77	23-Dec-77	27-Mar-79
OHI-2	PWR	1120	KEPCO	Operating	WH	08-Dec-72	14-Sep-78	11-Oct-78	05-Dec-79
OHI-3	PWR	1127	KEPCO	Operating	MHI	03-Oct-87	17-May-91	07-Jun-91	18-Dec-91
OHI-4	PWR	1127	KEPCO	Operating	MHI	13-Jun-88	28-May-92	19-Jun-92	02-Feb-93
ONAGAWA-1	BWR	498	TOHOKU	Operating	TOSHIBA	08-Jul-80	18-Oct-83	18-Nov-83	01-Jun-84
ONAGAWA-2	BWR	796	TOHOKU	Operating	TOSHIBA	12-Apr-91	02-Nov-94	23-Dec-94	28-Jul-95
ONAGAWA 3	BWR	796	TOHOKU	Operating	TOSHIBA	23-Jan-98	26-Apr-01	30-May-01	30-Jan-02
SENDAI-1	PWR	846	KYUSHU	Operating	MHI	15-Dec-79	25-Aug-83	16-Sep-83	04-Jul-84
SENDAI-2	PWR	846	KYUSHU	Operating	MHI	12-Oct-81	18-Mar-85	05-Apr-85	28-Nov-85
SHIKA-1	BWR	505	HOKURIKU	Operating	HITACHI	01-Jul-89	20-Nov-92	12-Jan-93	30-Jul-93
SHIMANE-1	BWR	439	CHUGOKU	Operating	HITACHI	02-Jul-70	01-Jun-73	02-Dec-73	29-Mar-74
SHIMANE-2	BWR	789	CHUGOKU	Operating	HITACHI	02-Feb-85	25-May-88	11-Jul-88	10-Feb-89
TAKAHAMA-1	PWR	780	KEPCO	Operating	WH	25-Apr-70	14-Mar-74	27-Mar-74	14-Nov-74
TAKAHAMA-2	PWR	780	KEPCO	Operating	MHI	09-Mar-71	20-Dec-74	17-Jan-75	14-Nov-75
TAKAHAMA-3	PWR	830	KEPCO	Operating	MHI	12-Dec-80	17-Apr-84	09-May-84	17-Jan-85
TAKAHAMA-4	PWR	830	KEPCO	Operating	MHI	19-Mar-81	11-Oct-84	01-Nov-84	05-Jun-85
TOKAI-2	BWR	1056	JAPCO	Operating	GE	03-Oct-73	18-Jan-78	13-Mar-78	28-Nov-78
TOMARI-1	PWR	550	HEPCO	Operating	MHI	02-Jul-85	16-Nov-88	06-Dec-88	22-Jun-89
TOMARI-2	PWR	550	HEPCO	Operating	MHI	05-Aug-86	25-Jul-90	27-Aug-90	12-Apr-91
TSURUGA-1	BWR	341	JAPCO	Operating	GE	24-Nov-66	03-Oct-69	16-Nov-69	14-Mar-70
TSURUGA-2	PWR	1115	JAPCO	Operating	MHI	06-Nov-82	28-May-86	19-Jun-86	17-Feb-87
TSURUGA-3	APWR	1538(Gross)	JAPCO	Planned		2006			2011
TSURUGA-4	APWR	1538(Gross)	JAPCO	Planned		2006			2011
HIGASHI DORI 1	BWR	1067	TOHOKU	Under Construction	TOSHIBA	24-Dec-98			Jul-05
MAKI	BWR	796	TOHOKU	Planned		2006			2012
SHIKA-2	ABWR	1358(Gross)	HOKURIKU	Under Construction	HITACHI	27-Aug-99			01-Mar-06
HAMAOKA-5	ABWR	1325	CHUBU	Under Construction	TOSHIBA	19-March-99			01-Aug-05
OMA	ABWR	1383(Gross)	Electric Power Development	Planned		Mar-05			Jul-10
KAMINOSKI-1	ABWR	1373(Gross)	CHUGOKU	Planned		2007			2012
KAMINOSEKI-2	ABWR	1373(Gross)	CHUGOKU	Planned		2010			2015
TOMARI-3	PWR	866	HEPCO	Planned		2003			2009
SIMANE-3	ABWR	1373(Gross)	CHUGOKU	Planned		2004			2010
JPDR-II	BWR	13	JAERI	Decommissioned	GE	01-Dec-60	22-Aug-63	26-Oct-63	26-Oct-63	06-Dec-82
TOKAI-1	GCR	159	JAPCO	Decommissioned	GEC	01-Mar-61	04-May-65	10-Nov-65	25-Jul-66	31-Mar-98

Source: Informed Data from Japan to IAEA Power Reactor Information System as of 31-Jan-2003; nuclear power plants In The World 2002, Japan Atomic Industrial Forum; Outlook of Electric Supply Plan (March 2003), METI.

 

Current organisational chart

Figure 3 shows Japan's organisation chart in nuclear power, comprising of government regulatory authorities, electric power companies and contracting engineers/suppliers.

The Japanese government carried out administrative reform in January 2001. The Atomic Energy Commission and Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) of the Cabinet Office gives high-level, independent and proper directions to other ministries and agencies.

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) was created through a merger between the former Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture and the Science and Technology Agency (STA). In MEXT, three Bureaus and four Divisions are in charge of nuclear energy. MEXT is responsible for the administration of nuclear energy for science and technology. Its key roles are nuclear research and development (including nuclear fuel cycle, FBR, quantum research, fusion, and accelerators), utilisation of radiation and radioisotopes, nuclear liability, safety regulation and disaster prevention testing and research for nuclear reactors, use of nuclear fuel material, and regulation for ensuring peaceful use and safeguards. It is also responsible for the supervision of the National Institute of Radiological Science, the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute and the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute.

The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) will be in charge of not only of those areas that it was previously - as the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) - and the areas taken over from STA - related to the nuclear fuel cycle business (refining, enrichment, fabrication, reprocessing and waste disposal), but also the regulation of nuclear reactors including Monju and Fugen, that are in the research and development stage for use in the generation of electricity. Nuclear power-related issues will continue to be the responsibility of the Agency of Natural Resources and Energy. In addition, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA), with its ten sections related to nuclear energy, was added as a special institution, to play a central role in safety regulations for industrialised nuclear power. NISA is responsible for regulating nuclear safety. The drafting of safety regulations and the licensing of milling and refining, nuclear fuel fabrication, spent nuclear fuel reprocessing and storage, disposal of radioactive waste and decommissioning of nuclear power plants, are now carried out by NISA. A double check safety review system of nuclear facilities by NSC and NISA or MEXT is continuously being applied.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) is responsible for the international aspect of nuclear energy utilisation, including the implementation of the related international treaties and conventions.

 

Supply of nuclear power plants

In Japan, five companies have provided steam generators for nuclear power plants. For BWRs these are Toshiba, Hitachi, G.E., and G.E. and Toshiba jointly. While for PWRs these are Mitsubishi, Westinghouse, and Westinghouse and Mitsubishi jointly.

Many companies are capable of supplying equipment and services to Japan's nuclear power industry. These range from the suppliers of major equipment and machinery to those supplying ordinary equipment or offering engineering services. They also include firms related to the nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear fuel recycling.

Operation of nuclear power plants

Figure 3 shows the nine electric power companies which operate commercial light water reactors, and one company which is a producer and wholesaler of electricity nuclear-generated.

Regarding nuclear power plant operator training in Japan, both the BWR and PWR groups have their own training centres. These were financed, built and utilised jointly by the member companies of each group, comprising electric power companies and contracted engineering firms. In addition, each electric power company has its own training facility. Engineering qualification tests for operator certification are conducted at training centres operated jointly by the member companies.

The representative suppliers of Japan's maintenance services are Toshiba, Hitachi and Mitsubishi. The electric power companies make contracts with these maintenance service companies. Efforts are made to enable the contractors to assume responsibility for repair and maintenance services for their nuclear power plants.

Fuel cycle and waste management service supply

Fuel cycle activities in Japan comprise of enrichment, conversion, fuel fabrication, zircaloy cladding, reprocessing and radioactive waste activities. Figure 3 shows the enterprises involved.

For additional information on the Japanese radioactive waste management programme please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries.

Research and development

Research and development organisations and institutes

The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), amongst other responsibilities, advises on research and development. The long-term programme for the development and use of nuclear energy is revised by the AEC every five years (the latest revision was published in November 2000). Government responsibilities for research and development are shared between the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). MEXT is responsible for planning and administration regarding nuclear energy for science and technology. MEXT plays a key role in nuclear research and development of many areas, including the nuclear fuel cycle, FBR, fusion research and accelerators. MEXT supervises the work of the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute (JNC), which was established in 1998, and also that of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI), established in 1956. JNC is the main channel for the development of advanced reactors and establishment of the fuel cycle. In both there is close collaboration with the private sector, including shared funding on some projects. Since 1985, the Nuclear Ship Research and Development Agency has been integrated in JAERI. The Agency of Natural Resources and Energy carries out various activities, which include studies of improvements in reactor design, approval of design modifications proposed by utilities, and decommissioning. In October 2005 JAERI merged with JNC to form the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA).

Development of advanced and new-generation nuclear reactor systems

In addition to the LWRs for power production, Japan is active in developing other types of reactors, such as small LWRs, HTGRs and FBRs. JAERI is developing an integral-type reactor with thermal power up to 300MW aiming at multi-purpose uses such as small-grid electricity generation, heat supply and desalination, based on the MRX ship reactor design. The Toshiba Corporation and the Tokyo Institute of Technology are developing a natural circulation, simplified LSBWR with passive safety systems and a long operating cycle: within 100-300 MWe power capacity and 15 years of core life.

The HTGR development is at the stage of operation and testing of a test reactor. The principal focus of Japan's HTGR development programme is the High-Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) at the JAERI Oarai site, Ibaraki Prefecture. Initial criticality of the HTTR was achieved in November 1998. This 30 MW(th) helium-cooled reactor is being utilised to establish and upgrade the technology of advanced HTGR, and to demonstrate the effectiveness of selected high-temperature heat utilisation systems. The HTTR accomplished a full power operation of 30 MW(th) and a gas temperature of 850°C at the reactor outlet in December 2001. Also, a project has been initiated to develop a 600 MWth gas turbine HTGR design for electricity generation.

The JNC is conducting research and development on FBRs and nuclear fuel reprocessing technology to establish an economical nuclear fuel cycle. The experimental fast reactor (JOYO) operated from 1982 to 2000 with the MK-II core (100 MWt). The reactor and its cooling system was upgraded to the MK-III core (140 MWt) and attained its initial criticality in July 2003. The performance testing of its confirmity to regular functions is progressing. The prototype LMFR MONJU with a capacity of 280 MW(e) reached initial criticality in April 1994, and was connected to the grid in August 1995. Reactor operation was interrupted in December 1995 due to a sodium leak in the non-radioactive secondary cooling system. A legal application for the improvement of the MONJU plant, mainly to introduce countermeasures against sodium leakage, was permitted in December 2002. The MONJU reactor is considered a cornerstone for research and development activities and considerable effort is being made to resume its operation. In addition to this mainstream development work, a feasibility study on commercialised fast reactor cycle systems is in progress with the objective of presenting an optimal commercialisation vision of LMFR technologies and a research and development programme.

International co-operation and initiatives

Bilateral nuclear power co-operation agreements have been concluded for the purpose of promoting the peaceful use of nuclear power while ensuring that nuclear power equipment and materials, including nuclear materials, have solely peaceful applications. Japan has concluded such bilateral nuclear power co-operation treaties with six nations: the United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia and the People's Republic of China. Under these agreements, the parties exchange expertise and information on the peaceful use of nuclear power and provide and receive nuclear equipment, materials and services.

Japan co-operates with Asian and developing nations through the Forum for Nuclear Co-operation in Asia, under the framework of the Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology, and under various bilateral co-operation agreements.

Japan, together with some western countries, provides technology safety assistance to former USSR nations, and Middle and Eastern Europe nations, under bilateral or multilateral frameworks.

Implementation of research and development by international co-operation

 

Co-operation in the activities of international organisations

• Activities with the IAEA: Japan has contributed to development and revision of IAEA nuclear safety standards by dispatching experts to CSS, NUSSC, WASSC, RASSC and TRANSSC. Regarding the Convention on Nuclear Safety and Joint Convention of the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, Japan has dispatched experts to participate in the draft planning stage. Japan has also participated in review activities after the submission of National Reports.
• Activities with the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency: Japan has dispatched representatives to committees such as the CSNI, CRPPH, RWMC, and CNRA since their establishment.

Multilateral co-operation

• Based on agreements, bilateral co-operation conferences are held regularly to exchange opinions related to safety with the USA, France, Korea and China. Japan has participated in other international research co-operation endeavours including the OECD Halden Reactor Project and COOPRA.

Table 2 shows Japan's co-operation with major international organisations.

Table 2. Co-operation with International Organisations

Organisation	Outline of co-operation
IAEA	Promotion of peaceful uses of atomic energy (safety-related co-operation, technical aid to developing countries and R&D), and provision of safeguards to ensure that nuclear activities are not transformed for military purposes. Japan participates positively in INSAG (International Nuclear Safety Advisory group), NUSSAC (Nuclear Safety Standard Advisory Committee), ASSET (Assessment of Safety Significant Event Team), OSART and special studies to evaluate the safety of reactors in the former USSR. Japan made an Extra-budgetary Contribution to the IAEA for 1) the Expanded program of public understanding of nuclear energy (EPPUNE),  2) Nuclear Safety and 3) Waste Management and Disposal.
OECD/NEA	The purpose is to provide useful information to member countries through technological study and mutual co-operation regarding common problems in nuclear energy use in advanced countries. Japan participates actively in the CNRA (Committee for Nuclear Regulatory Activities), CSNI (Committee for Safety of Nuclear Installation), RWMC (Radioactive Waste Management Committee) and NDC (Committee for Technical and Economic Studies on Nuclear Energy Development and the Fuel Cycle).

Historical development and current nuclear power organisational structure

Overview

The enactment of the Atomic Energy Law (1955) introduced the promotion of atomic energy development and utilisation, toward peaceful objectives in compliance with the three basic principles: democratic management, voluntary action, and open information. Inauguration of the Atomic Energy Commission (1956) established an advisory board for the Prime Minister on matters regarding the promotion of atomic energy development and utilisation.

A long-term programme for the research, development and utilisation of nuclear energy (Long-term Programme) was formulated in 1956. Today, it is the basic programme for the nation regarding nuclear power development and utilisation. The plan is revised and updated every five years.

The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (the former METI) was reorganised in 1966 to accommodate its increasing workload. This change provided additional rules and regulations for the introduction of commercial light water reactors in Japan after 1966.

In 1974, three basic regulations for the promotion of electric power development were passed into law; namely, the "Law for the Adjustment of Areas Adjacent to Power-Generating Facilities," the "Electric Power Development Promotion Tax Law," and the "Special Account Law for Electric Power Promotion". These laws also advanced the appropriate siting of nuclear power stations.

In 1978, the Nuclear Safety Commission was formed as a separate entity from the Atomic Energy Commission. Safety assurance measures were enhanced in 1980 in order to reflect the lessons learned from the TMI-2 Accident (1979) and, later, the Chernobyl accident in 1986.

An overall appraisal, entitled the "Vision of Nuclear Power" in 1986 provided long-range prospects of energy availability and electric power requirements through to 2030, and a programme for safety enhancement called "Safety 21", further reinforced safety assurance measures. In 1990, Japan revised its supply targets to include alternative energy sources to mitigate its growing demand for oil and its part in the greenhouse effect.

In 2001, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) was formed as a separate entity from the Agency of Natural Resources and Energy of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (or METI, which was renamed from the Ministry of International Trade and Industry or MITI), to hold jurisdiction over matters of nuclear and industrial safety.

Performance of nuclear power plants

Table 3 shows trends in the capacity factor by reactor type.

Table 3. Trend of Capacity Factor (%)

Reactor type	1988	1990	1995	1999	2000	2001	2002
BWR	72,1 (18)	68.1 (37)	84.8 (49)	81.8 (28)	79.0 (28)	78.6 (28)	71.9 (29)
PWR	68.4 (16)	75.3 (17)	74.2 (22)	79.1 (23)	83.3 (23)	84.3 (23)	87.3 (23)
GCR	73.6 (  1)	64.9 (  1)	60.5 (  1)	-	-	-	-
Average	70.4 (35)	71.2 (39)	79.9 (49)	80.6 (51)	80.9 (51)	81.0 (51)	78.4 (52)

( ) : number of operating reactors
Source: METI Nuclear Data (August 2003)

Plant upgrading and plant life management

In Japan, nearly 30 years have passed since some power plants started operation. Currently, there is no indication of an increase in problems, however people are very concerned about the ageing of the nuclear power plants. In April 1996, MITI (formerly METI) announced the "Basic Concepts on Ageing of nuclear power plants", which comprised two ideas:

1. MITI had the outlook that existing plants could be operated in the long term after MITI had made a technical evaluation of the instruments crucial in long-term operations; these instruments are important from the viewpoint of safety, but are not easy to replace or repair; and
2. MITI requested that power companies should carry out technical evaluations and make long-term maintenance plans for each instrument including replaceable ones in plants, within 30 years from the start of operations.

MITI adjusted these concepts into specific measures in February 1999. According to these, electric companies reported to METI technical evaluations and long-term maintenance plans in 1999 and 2001 and METI judged the reports to be appropriate.

Nuclear power development projections and plans

Table 4 lists future nuclear power plants to be built at either new or existing sites in Japan.

Table 4. Expansion of Nuclear Power Plants in the Future

Power plant name	Owner name	Gross capacity (MW)	Construction start (FY)	Commissioning (FY)	Note
Namie Kodaka	TOHOKU	825	2009	2014
Higashi-Dori	TOHOKU	1385	2007	2012
Fukushima Daiichi-7	TEPCO	1380	2005-4	2009 -10	BWR
Fukushima Daiichi-8	TEPCO	1380	2005-4	2010 -10	BWR
Higashi-Dori-1	TEPCO	1385	2005	2011
Higashi-Dori-2	TEPCO	1385	2005	2011
SUZU-1	HOKURIKU	1350	2009	2014
SUZU-2	HOKURIKU	1350	2009	2014
Total 8 Power Plants		10,440

Source: Outlook of Electric Power Supply Plan, METI (March 2003, FY)

The development of light-water reactors in Japan began with PWRs from Westinghouse and BWRs from G.E. As nuclear power technologies were incorporated by the domestic industry, successive expansion projects included nuclear power plants which were of Japanese design and construction. Today, Toshiba, Hitachi and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries have emerged as Japan's representative suppliers of nuclear steam supply systems (NSSS). Construction of nuclear power plants is undertaken within an industrial system where one or more of the above-mentioned three companies acts as the prime contractor(s), and forms a joint venture with contract engineers or construction companies as subcontractors.

The development of an Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR) started in 1978 as a project of international co-operation among five BWR vendors. The resulting conceptual design plan was highly evaluated by TEPCO and other Japanese utilities, and as a result, the ABWR was included in the third standardised programme starting in 1981. The preliminary design and numerous development and verification tests were carried out by Toshiba, Hitachi and GE together with six Japanese utilities and the Japanese government. Two ABWRs, the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Units 6 and 7, were ordered by TEPCO and began successful commercial operation in November 1996 and July 1997 respectively. Two more ABWRs are under construction at Hamaoka-5 and Shika-2, another ABWR is under licensing review at Ohma-1 and eight more ABWRs are in the planning stage. These eight future ABWRs will achieve a significant reduction in generation costs compared to the current ABWRs. The cost reduction is to be obtained by the following means: standardisation, design modifications and improvements in project management. In addition, all of the experience of the ABWRs currently operating will contribute to cost reduction.

Decommissioning information and plans

It is Japan's fundamental policy to dismantle and remove decommissioned nuclear power generation facilities that have completed their service life, while ensuring complete safety in that process. Based on this fundamental policy, the standard procedure (standard work schedule) is one of 'safe storage plus disassembly/removal'. It is appropriate to choose a safe storage period of five to ten years and a disassembly/removal period of three to four years.

The estimated cost of reactor decommissioning in Japan (referring to precedents in other countries), is approximately ¥30 billion (1984 prices) for a 1 100 MW-class nuclear power plant, when its safe storage period is five years. The Agency of Natural Resources and Energy is implementing verification tests of reactor decommissioning technology such as techniques for decommissioning waste processing and for remote reactor dismantling, which are important in ensuring better safety and reliability.

National laws and regulations

For additional information on national laws and regulations concerning nuclear power please see the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency's Analytical Study of Nuclear Legislation in OECD countries.

Safety authority and the licensing process

Figure 4 shows the process of approval and permission for nuclear power plants in Japan, as of September 2003.

Main national laws and regulations concerning nuclear power

1. The Atomic Energy Basic Law [no186, 19 December 1955, as amended].

2. 2004 Japan Atomic Energy Agency Law

3. The Law for the Regulation of Nuclear Source Material, Nuclear Fuel Material and Reactors [no166, 10 June 1957, as amended].

The law, usually abbreviated as LRNR, prescribes the regulations necessary for the installation and operation of reactors, refining, processing, and disposal of nuclear waste.

4. The Electricity Utilities Industry Law (1964.7.11 - Publication) as amended in 2002.

5. The Law concerning Prevention of Radiation Hazards due to Radioisotopes, etc. [no167, 10 June 1957, as amended].

The law intends to prevent radiation hazards by regulating the use and disposal of radioisotopes and the use of radiation producers. In a nuclear power plant, the law applies when neutron sources are used or radioisotopes are employed for the calibration of equipment.

6. Special Law of 1999 on Emergency Preparedness for nuclear disaster [no156, 17 December 1999].

7. The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (1961.6.17 - Publication) as last amended in 1999.

8. Law on Final Disposal of High Level Radioactive Waste (2000)

The law prescribes the establishment of implementation for disposal, a funding mechanism for securing disposal costs, and a three-step site selection process.

Current issues and developments in nuclear power

Energy policy

The Basic Law on Energy Policy-Making, which aims to indicate the general direction of future energy policies, was enacted in June 2002. Based on this law, the Advisory Committee of Natural Resources and Energy started examination of the Basic Plan for Energy Supply and Demand in April 2003. Considering the views and opinions of the public and of relevant administrative organsations, the draft was drawn up and decided at a Cabinet meeting and reported to the Diet in October 2003. It is comprised of three basic policies:

1. Securing a stable energy supply;
2. Reducing the burden on the environment; and
3. Applying market principles.

Promotion of nuclear power generation and nuclear fuel cycles is considered one measure to achieve these policies. The plan must be re-examined at least once every three years and modified as necessary.

Privatisation and deregulation

To investigate future reform of the electricity sector, a series of meetings of the Advisory Committee for the Natural Resources and the Energy Electricity Industry Committee were held from November 2001 to February 2003. At the conclusion of these meetings, the Committee issued the "Framework of the Desirable Future Electricity Industry System" Report in February 2003, which indicated the framework and directions of future electricity industry reform.

Based on the report, the government of Japan amended the Electricity Utility Industry Law in June 2003 and is now examining in detail measures to implement new regulations and systems. In this reform, the scope of liberalisation will be extended (from 2004 for high-voltage over 500kW customers and from 2005 for all high-voltage customers), and new regulations will be introduced in order to ensure fairness and neutrality of the transmission/distribution segment, for example: the introduction of conduct regulations (account unbundling, information firewalls and the prohibition of discriminatory treatment) and the establishment of a neutral transmission system organisation. Furthermore, a nationwide wholesale power exchange will be created in order to establish an investment environment for electric power source development, and 'pancaking' will be abolished for vitalisation of the nationwide power trade.

As of 2003, eleven new entrants have submitted a notice of intent to establish an "Electric Company of Specified Scale," nine of which already supply electricity. Compared with power utilities, however, their combined share in the liberalised market (for specified-scale demand) remained at only 1.79%, as of July 2003.

Nuclear safety issues

The investigation of the falsification of a licensee's self-imposed plant inspection reports began in July 2000, upon the notification to METI of the falsification. In August 2002, TEPCO admitted that there were a total of 29 suspected falsification cases at 13 nuclear power units and subsequent investigations revealed sixteen more such cases at nine nuclear units. The authorities initiated their investigations, but also concluded that the technical problems did not have any immediate and significant effect on their safety.

In September 2002, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) was informed of the discovery of cracks and crack indications in the re-circulation piping of 12 units run by Chubu EPCo, JAPC, TEPCO and Tohoku EPCo. Several of these cases are still under review.

At one of TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi units, compressed air was improperly injected into the containment vessel during leak rate inspections conducted in 1991 and 1992. This was revealed on 25 October, 2002. After examination, the NISA issued an administrative order closing down the unit for one year to permit a detailed inspection.

By mid-April 2003, TEPCO had closed all its 17 reactors to carry out pressure tests, either for periodic inspections (eight units) or for voluntary checks (nine units). Replacement power was provided by oil-fired reserve power plants as well as from increasing the use of LNG and imports from other utilities. TEPCO has also been advising consumers to save electricity. The closures made the supply-demand situation tight as the reserve margin fell to 4% during the winter. Twelve units have been re-opened, but it is not clear when TEPCO will be able to re-open other units. This will depend on the results of inspections, on the implications of suspected cracks in respect to licensing conditions and will ultimately depend on the consent of local government.

The government has taken action following the discovery of the falsification of reports. A decision has been taken to reinforce the work of NISA with an independent organisation, the Japan Nuclear Energy Safety Organisation (JNES), which will strengthen the implementation of safety regulations. In addition, the government will replace the licensee's self-imposed plant inspection carried out by nuclear power operators by mandatory ones.

Appendix 1 - International, Multilateral and Bilateral Agreements

Appendix 2 - Directory of the main organisations, instituions and companies involved in nuclear power-related activites

References

Related links

Nuclear facts and figures for OECD countries
Number of nuclear units connected to the grid; Nuclear electricity generation (net TWh); Nuclear percentage of total electricity supply.

IEA energy statistics: Japan
Data available in the following areas: Coal, oil and gas use; Electricity production, supply and consumption; Heat production, supply and consumption; Graphs of sectorial final consumption by source in 1973 and 2001.

The Decommissioning and Dismantling of Nuclear Facilities in OECD/NEA Member Countries: Japan
This compilation of national fact sheets is intended to serve as an authoritative source of reference information on individual NEA member countries. In this context, the term "nuclear facility" includes all facilities associated with the production of nuclear power, from mining of uranium, through fabrication of nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant operation, fuel reprocessing and waste management, including related R&D facilities, and research and demonstration reactors.

Nuclear Legislation in OECD Countries: Japan
Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear Activities
Each country profile in this valuable reference work provides a detailed review of a full range of nuclear law topics. These include: the general regulatory regime, including mining; radioactive substances and equipment; nuclear installations; trade in nuclear materials; radiation protection; radioactive waste management; non-proliferation and physical protection; transport; and nuclear third party liability.

Related NEA publications

Nuclear Energy Data
Nuclear Energy Data is the NEA’s annual compilation of essential statistics on electricity generation and nuclear power in OECD countries. The reader will have quick and easy reference to the status of and projected trends in total electricity generating capacity, nuclear generating capacity, and actual electricity production, as well as to supply and demand for nuclear fuel cycle services.

This is an edited extract from the IAEA Country Nuclear Power Profiles. The complete entry is available from the IAEA.

Last updated: 20 June 2007